c-BASQUE-4_morphology.htm

PROTO-LANGUAGE
PHONEMES

in IE and Basque



by Patrick C. Ryan

(2/12/2001)

PL MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS IN BASQUE

((B=Biscayan; C=common; G=Guipuzcoan; L=Labourdin; LN=Low Navarrese;
R=Roncallese; U=Unified Basque; Z=Souletin))

B(A1) verbal: -"?A ("I"' = "here"); Basque -a-, present tense prefix (see Trask 1997:223); (IE in lengthened final vowels: e.g. g[^]he:-; from 1. e/e:, o/o:); (cf. Beng *-:, stative); (cf. Japanese a-, copula (-> MJ á-ru, "be at, exist"; in combination: ni a -> na; de a -> da)

B(A1) nominal: ?A ("I"' = "here") / ?E ("he/she/it"' = "over there") / ?O ("you"' = " there"); Basque -a-, -e-, -o-, direct object (see Trask 1997:220); in Ryan (1990), I demonstrated the existence of an early set of deictic elements that were used as personal pronouns for the 1^st (?A), 2^nd (?O), and 3^rd persons (?E); these early pronouns are present in Old Japanese a(re), I; o(:)(re), you; and a(ti) [for *e(ti)], he, she, it; (IE -Ha, 1^st p. sing. perfect; -He, 3rd p. sing. perfect; 3. e-this, he; also in ei- ["?E-$E or ?E-$A {see below}], this, he, listed under 3. e-; and IE 4. au- ["?E-FA {see below}], that); (cf. Uralic e, this); (cf. Beng [Southern Mandé] O, he/she/it - with present tense [<- ?E-FA {imperfective}; cf. IE 4. au-, that]; (cf. Beng E, he/she/it - with past tense [<- ?E-$A {perfective}; cf. IE ei-, this, he]; and ?, this is..., here is... [?A-FA ?]).

B(A2) verbal: ?E- ( non-concommitant time); Basque e-, Biscaian past tense prefix; combined with *za/o (SA or S[H]O) into ze- when no other agreement adfix is present; (IE e-augment of perfect and imperfect)

(A2) nominal: ?E {see under ?A}

(A3) verbal: ?O {not known}

(A3) nominal: ?O {see under ?A}

B(A4) verbal: -"$A (/HHA) ("much [/ many]"= perfective), Basque -i, perfective participle (212); (IE -yo, future passive participles; participles of necessity; active or passive participles); the basis for the infinitive: the idea behind the perfective is successful completion of a verbal activity; the PL assumed that doing something "many" times or strongly ("much") would lead to the successful completion of the activity); cf. Uralic -i, "past tense" marker (cf. Finnish annoin, I gave <- *antaim), which is really perfective; (cf. Beng past *-y (really: perfective); (cf. Japanese -e(:)/i, infinitive).

(A4) nominal: -$A (/HHA) ("much [/ many]"); (IE -i, plural in oblique cases and -i in neuter duals of o-stems).

(A5) verbal: $E(-?A) ("say{-here}"), (IE *a in an, interrogative particle [PL $E-NA, "say-not"]); (cf. AA vocative ya and interrogative particle ?a); (OJ ya, interrogative particle)

*(A5) verbal: -"$E (verbal differentiation only); (IE -i in primary verbal endings, e.g. -mi); (cf. Beng *-y); (Japanese -i, non-past indicative of adjectives)

B(A5) nominal: -$E (" -like"); 1) Basque -i, "an ancient adjective-forming suffix (212)", e.g. gazi, "salty", from gatz, "salt"; ari, "active", from *ar, "*stack up"; Trask lumps Basque reflexes of PL $E, $A, and $O together: "I assume we are looking at a single suffix in all these cases (212)" - but nothing could better illustrate the fallacy of considering Basque an "isolate";

2) Basque -e (from "V+y), genitive (201; "Michelena suggests (1972b) that -e might have been the original genitive ending"); (IE -i, relationship of any kind to root; -i, genitive; in -yo/-iyo, adjectives of possession/origin; locative in -i is probably originally a genitive [if not from subessive $A, under]); (AA -i [from -*ya], genitive); (cf. Uralic -i, relationship of any kind to root); (the -i/? element of the Altaic forms: [Sino-]Tibetan -yi, genitive [$E-$E], which has been supplemented by -q [QO, *attached]); (cf. Beng *-y);Japanese -i/í [from *-ye] in MJ namí, wave; the earliest PL "genitive" is -$E, -like.

*(A5) nominal: -$E-$E ("always-like"), gentilic; (IE -iyo, see above); (AA -iya [Egyptian gentilic -ii {/ya:/}]); ([Sino-]Tibetan -yi, see above [unless from dissimilated HHE-HHE]).

B(A6) verbal: -"$O, ("what is held, object"), causative; Basque -i in itzal-i, obscure ("cause to be shaded"), from itzal, shade (212; strangely, Trask does not recognize this as a causative formant, but characterizes it as "an identical -i . . . to derive participles from nouns and adjectives"; referring, of course, to Basque -i from PL $A); (IE -(e)yo, causative; -n-, causative [from PL NA, "one"]); in language after language, the causative/factitive has been simply formed by adding a formant to the verb which originally designated an inanimate object: factitive* ("I [cause] it {NA} [to be] V... -ed"), and the causative: ("I [cause] he {him} {$O, originally inanimate} to V... it); Japanese -*y in tate: (<-*tatay) = taté-ru, erect ("cause to stand"), from tata, "stand".

*(A6) verbal: -" $O ('hold'), (IE (-[y]e/o-, subjunctive?); (Japanese yo, emphasis for statement or command ["must"] (cf. yu-u, tie, bind = IE 2. yeu-, bind [$O-FA, "holding"])

(A6) nominal: -$O, ("what is held, object"); (IE yo, who, which, listed incorrectly under 3. e-); (cf. Altaic -i/?, 3rd p. sing.); (cf. Beng yo, another)

(A7) verbal: -"FA [/F[H]A] (imperfective),(IE in nomina actionis in -we/o(n) and Old Indian active present participle in -u for s-desideratives); (cf. Beng -w in bON, black pagne leaf); (cf. also Uralic Nenets -wa (not -*ma!), imperfective infinitive); (Japanese imperfect -u[imperfective]); the idea behind this formant is that a definite small number of repetitions implies activity without completion.

(A7) nominal: -FA [/F[H]A] (definite inanimate small plural), (IE dual in -o(:)u); ( cf. Beng -*win gbO, feces)

B(A7) nominal and verbal -F[H]A {see FA above; and (A46) below}

(A8) nominal and verbal -HA {see ?A above}

*(A8) nominal: HA-$E),(IE the negative represented by Greek and Old Indian a-, negative (considered incorrectly to be a vocalic reduction of n) and the Egyptian negative element i(i) may be the nominal employment of the non-concommitant time prefix ?E ("there=not here") in verbs as I speculated in the essay on Beng but could also represent the base on which "HA-$E, i.e. HA, "air" or "airy, empty"); (cf. Uralic e, no, not); (Altaic negative e); (Beng (Southern Mandé) é, not (though I reconstructed the PL base as ?E in the essay on Beng, it could represent an unusual response to HA-$E [é <-*E <- *ay?]); (Japanese hi, error, fault (omission?); hi-, non-)

(A9) nominal and verbal -HE {see ?E above}

(A10) nominal and verbal -HO {see ?O above}

(A11) nominal and verbal -HHA {see $A above}

B(A12) verbal: HHE ("go"); in HHE(-HHE) ("always going"), Basque dative -i (from *-ey) (201); dative verbal marker -i (from *-ey) (228); (IE -[e]i, dative; 1. ei-, come, go); (cf. Uralic Nenets -ye? [from *-ey?], toward); (Japanese (h)e, to (of motion) [cf. also heru, decrease {"go away"; héru, pass}])

*(A12) verbal: HHE-HHE ("always going"), (IE -ye: {from *-e:y}, optative); (cf. Uralic Nenets -yi?, potential noun: xet-, tell -> xetyiq, possibility to tell {"going to tell"}; HHE-HHEdissimilated to HHE-$E [IE e:y]}; (cf. Nenets 3^rd p. optative -ya; conjunctive -yi); (not foundin Japanese but probably present)

(A12) nominal: -HHE {see ?E above}

(A13) nominal and verbal -HHO {see $O above}

B(A14) verbal: K[?]XE ("face, in front of, about to . . ."), Basque -ke, potential mood suffix (Trask 1997:224); (IE g[^]he-, "*before", cf. Old Indian tár-hi, "at one time"="before then", listed under ghe-; cf. also gher-, *face", in Czech zrak, "face", listed under g[^]her-, "beam, glow, shimmer"); (cf. Egyptian Hr, "face, *front")

B(A14) nominal: K[?]XE ("bare, scrape"), Basque -ge, "lack of . . ."; (IE 1. g[^]he:-, "be empty, missing")

B(A14a) nominal: KX[H]A-F[H]A ("hurting"), Basque -ko (KO₂), blow; (IE ka:u-, "hew, beat")

(A14b) verbal: KX[H]E ("fast, busy"), (IE in 4. ken-; in -sk[^]-, former of presents, iteratives, distributive, repetitive, continuative, intensive; in Greek perfect -k); (cf. Uralic -cha, deverbative); (Japanese -k-, perfect)

B (A15) nominal: K[H]O, Basque -ko, diminutive; (IE -ko, diminutive); (cf. Uralic -ka in pos-ka, cheek); Japanese ko-, little, small; ko, child;

B*(A15) nominal: K[H]O-F[H]A ("cover-ing"), Basque -ko, clothing; (IE 2. (s)keu-, "cover, wrap up")

B(A16) verbal: KX[H]O ("closed up = close"); Basque -ko, future participle (103); (IE k[^]e / k[^]o, "future particle [Greek]"); (cf. Uralic -ka/ä, imperative [cf. Nenets -x, hortative]); (cf. Egyptian sDm.xr.f, he *must hear [cf. xr, with])

(A16) nominal: KX[H]O ("closed up = close"); (IE ko(m)-; ko-, this, listed under k[^]o, which is properly K[H]E, 'that'; (cf. Egyptian xnti, in front); (cf. Uralic -ka/ä, comitative ("with"); (cf. Nenets locative -x-na; xi, near); (Japanese ko:(re), used for third person proximate; contrasting with so:(re) [S[H]O-RE], semi-proximate; and ka(re) [K[H]E-RE], distal)

(A16) nominal: MA-?A ("full"), (IE 2. ma:-); (Japanese ma-, intensive prefix)

*(A16) nominal: MA-$E ("full-like"), ; (Japanese mai-, prefix meaning each, every)

(A17) nominal: ME ("tongue = speaker"), (IE 1. me-; -me, 1^st person verbal inflection); (cf. Egyptian -k, you[r]); (cf. Altaic in men, I); (Beng (Southern Mandé) in mí, you [sg. familiar]); (in Late Middle Japanese mi, I --- corresponding to mi, I, we also have kimi, you, "other speaker" ("K[H]E-$E-"ME-$E); K[H]E is a common formant for the 2^nd person)

(A18) nominal: M[H]O ("overall"), (IE -mo, superlative); (cf. Altaic -ma/e, augmentative in kap-kara, entirely black (from *kam-kara); (cf. Uralic -ma, superlative [cf. also Nenets ngar, largeness -> ngarm-, become larger]); (Japanese mo, also, even)

(A19) verbal: M[H]A ("hold [off from]"), (IE 1. me:-, (that) not, prohibitive); (Japanese -m-, negative irrealis)

(A19) nominal: M[H]A(-$E), (IE -m, accusative); PL M[H]A is "activity at"; it was originally used primarily with animate nouns to indicate -- in the absence of an expressed animate subject -- that they were targets of the action; obviously, it could also be used as a locative; neuters acquired -m secondarily, originally only as locatives; (cf. Uralic -ma/ä, accusative)

*(A19) nominal: M[H]A (activity), (IE -mo, formant of locations); (cf. Uralic -ma/ä, deverbal noun [Finnish kuolla, die -> kuolema, death); (Japanese -ma(:), in MJ jama, obstruction, restriction [PL T[?]SO-$A-M[H]A {'held-activity'} = OJ *dyama:])

(A20) nominal: M[H]O ("human"), (IE does not have this use presumably except as a constituent of *men, someone); (AA *man, someone); (Beng mo, my, mine; this word was used for "pronouns" in Amerindian languages.

B(A21) verbal: -NA, Basque -(e)n, past tense (224) {really a nominalization}; (IE -no, perfect participle); (cf. Egyptian sDm.n.f; "he heard", really a nominalization, "what he spoke"); Basque -n, nominalizer (Trask, "complementizer") (240)

B(A22) nominal: -NA (/N[H]A) (definite singular), Basque -n(a), refers to the absolutive subject of a subordinate clause / -la, refers to the ergative agent of the subordinate clause (see Trask 1997: 240-241); -ne, female first name ("NA-$E, a femininization of "the"); -le, "agent, actor" (N[H]A-$E, "the [animate]"); (not found in IE as a genitive per se, which has inherited -y [from -$E, -like, an adjectivizer] but -n, nominal suffix; -l, Romance definite article base; -lo, agent; cf. also -ino, secondary adjectives; -ino, pronominal possessive); (AA: Arabic -l[from animate N[H]A]; Egyptian n, genitival particle, shown to be an inflected article by its agreement with the foregoing noun, varying for feminine [n.t] and plural [{i}nw]);(cf. also Uralic -n, genitive; -na/nä, de-nominal/verbal noun [Hungarian vad, wild -> vadon, wilderness]); (Beng in sON\, person); (Japanese na in kana, "this (one)"; na, "copular connective" (?) in shizuka na hito, a quiet man (but perhaps simply the singular definite article [*"the" man of quiet], corresponding to genitive particle no [really the plural {article} {NO}]).

B*(A22) nominal: NA ("one" = "I/you"), Basque in ni (from *na-"yV <- PL NA-"$E), "I" (196); (IE: not found as a 1^st or 2^nd p. pronoun unless in 3. ne- {no:i}, "we {oblique}"); (Beng n, I); a frequent set of pronouns around the world for the first and second person are NA, the one, and K[H]E, the other (Beng ka, 2^nd p. plural and polite); the a of ka (for *ke) and the syllabic n of *na show that these "pronouns" are stress-unaccented.

B**(A22) nominal: "NA(-$E) ("inside-like"), Basque -n, locative, "in" (202); (IE nei- {Slavic *on?), listed under 1. en, "in"); (cf. Uralic -na/ä, illative ["into"]); Japanese ni, in, into

***(A22) nominal: NA/N[H]A in ?A+N[H]A(-FE) ("this-animate[-male]"'); (IE in all- for *alw-, listed under 1. al-; 2. an-); (cf. Altaic ol, 3rd p. demonstrative nominative and ?E-NA(that-inanimate), -a/en, 3rd p. demonstrative oblique); Altaic is attempted to preserve the animate-inanimate distinction of N[H]A/NA, the nominative preferring the animate form); (Beng aN, we [past, imperative], us, our).

****(A22) nominal: NA-?A ('being inside, absent'), (IE 1. ne/e:); (Japanese*na:-> ná-i, there is not)

*****(A22)nominal: NA-"?A-$E ("inside-like=not here=absent"), (IE ne:i-, listed under 1. ne/ne:-, negative); (Egyptian (i)n(n), negative); (Beng ní, not); (Japanese -*na:i -> -nai, not --- for this interpretation of the Japanese negative, cf. náibu, inside, interior [NA-?A-$E-P[?]FO-FA])

*****(A22) nominal: NA-$E ('not-say'), (IE nei, listed under 1. ne/e:); (Japanese nee, particle asking for agreement)

(A23) nominal: -NO (basket), (IE -n in -nt, 3^rd p. pl.; -men, 1^st p. pl.); (Egyptian -n pronominal plural); (Uralic -n, plural [originally inanimate]); (Japanese plural -no in ono (see #6), and so(-)no, that, those; properly a marker of the definite plural)

B(A24)verbal: -N[H]A ("start to..."); Basque l-, 3^rd person prefix for the irrealis (see Trask 1997:212-3); (IE: not formally recognized but -*l, inchoative [cf. Armenian infinitive in -l{but possibly from R[H]O, "rise to ..."}]); (cf. Uralic -l, inchoative (perhaps this has been weakened to mean only'move'); (Beng -N, inchoative); (Japanese: Millers -n- "perfect" but see p. 326, where it is clearly an inchoative)

*(A24) nominal: -N[H]A-$E ('moving inside-like'), (cf. Afrasian *li, [in]to); (Japanese ni, locative [into])

B(A24) nominal: -N[H]A Basque -la, forms adverbs of manner ("moving like . . ."); {see alsoNA above}

B*(A24) nominal: -"N[H]A-($E), Basque -le, agent; (IE -lo (-li), nouns of the agent)

(A25) nominal: -N[H]O

B(A25) nominal: P[?]FE-($E) ("foot-like=at the feet of, by, under"), Basque -b/pe, "under"; (IE bhi-, "by", listed under ambhi-, "around")

(A25b) nominal: P[?]FO-$E, ("leg-like, on top of"); (IE (ebhi?), "upon something, thereupon and overpowering it"[?E-, "there"+])

(A26) verbal: QO ("attached"), (cf. Uralic Nenets -ng?, essive); (cf. Altaic -q in genitives [-i/?q = $E-QO or $E-QA; -ni/?q = NA-$E-QO or NA-$E-QA]); (Japanese ga, emphatic subject, but [Japanese a for o is unexplained])

(A26) nominal: -QO ("skull, pot"); (IE -ng collectives); (cf. Uralic -ka/ä, non-singular)

*(A26) nominal: QO ("skull = animate entity"), (Sumerian ga-10, I); (Beng qa, they [with negatives]; qO [*qo + va, imperfective], they [with present/future]); this use of QO is particularly frequent in Australian languages

B(A26a) nominal: P[H]A ("over"), Basque b-, prefix of 3^rd person jussive verbs; cf. ba, "already"; (cf. IE in pero-s, "earlier"; peri-, "before", listed under 2. per-, "lead out over"); (cf. Egyptian p3,former of past perfects); (cf. ba- verbal prefix, glossed by Akkadian perfect in -t)

**(A26) nominal: QO-?A ("be attached"), (IE *(n)go:, listed under g[^]ho:; (*eng- in en-dh-, and, listed incorrectly under en-); (cf. Uralic Nenets ngo?, also); (cf. [Sino-]Tibetan -ang in ky+ang, also); (Sumerian -ng-, modal prefix, also); (Egyptian in [i]gr, also); (Japanese -go:, after [-> MJ go])

(A27) nominal: Q[H]O ("hooked"), (Beng possibly in ?aaN, hear now, well); perhaps doubtful

B(A28) verbal: RE ("scratch, (any) one"), Basque in ra-, causative prefix; -erazi, causative suffix (231); (IE in Latin -r, passive ending); Japanese -r-, passive

(A28) nominal: -RE ("scratch" = indefinite number), (Japanese in so(-)re, it, that); (cf. [Sino-]Tibetan -re, each, distributive); (Altaic -a/er, distributive); properly, -RE is a marker of the indefinite singular: cf. Egyptian p-3, any one, as against p-n, the ( P[?]A-N/N[H]A); *ip-, ones ($A-P[?]A)

**(A28) nominal: "RE-$E; (IE re:i-, listed under 1. ar-); (Japanese -ri, single (any one), in hito-ri, single man)

(A29) verbal: RO (augmentative); theoretically reconstructed but not specifically identified

(A29) nominal: RO (elative), (IE -ro, comparative); (Beng -l/r, augmentative); (Japanese -*ro but not recognized as a suffix)

(A30) nominal: -R[H]A (color); (IE -r, in color words); Beng -l in kala, elderly person

(A31) verbal: R[H]O (rise), (IE for *lo = "rise", cf. OHG ti-la, women's breast, and Greek tú-lo-s, swelling; cf. -lo, nouns of agent and instrument [this is from "give rise to"]); (the Japanese imperfect ending -ru = either PL RE (apply) + FA (imperfective) [cf. Egyptian -3] or R[H]O-F[H]A [Armenian infinitive in -l]; (Japanese -*ro: (-> MJ -roo), presumptive, "rise to ...", "intend to")

(A31) nominal: -R[H]O; (IE -lo, augmentative)

B(A32) nominal: -SA(-$E) or SA-FE ("strong[-like] {unbreakable}" or "strong-powerful"), Old Basque *Z-, which has the effect of de-leniting initial consonants in a word; -tza, "abundance, large amount of, collectivity"; or -zu / -*tzu (-tsu [SA-$E-FE ?]), "full of"; Biscaian ze-, past tense prefix when no other agreement prefix present {see (A2) above}); (IE -s aorist; s-mobile; or su-); (cf. Uralic Nenets -sy, "past tense" or so/wa, good); (cf. Japanese súu-, "several").

(A33) nominal: SE ("individual", inanimate); see S[H]E below.

(A34)nominal: S[H]A ("content = serene"), (IE desiderative / future in -s); (Japanese -*s(a:)-, marker of respect (-> MJ -mas-u (MA-S[H]A, "fully happy"; cf. masáru, surpass, excel), 326;

B*(A34) nominal: S[H]A ("rest, place"), -z, instrumental; in -zko, made of (+KX[H]O-F[H]A, "cutting"; IE 1. (s)keu-, "get ready, carry out"; 6. ske:u-(t-), "cut, separate, scratch, score, puncture, poke through"); -tz, *stative, in gaitz, "bad"; putz / futz, "puff of air"'; -tza, stative, in bizitza, "life"; (IE -s, nouns of quality [cf. Old Indian tápa-s, warmth); Mediterranean place names in -isso); (cf. [Sino-]Tibetan -sa, place of...); (Uralic -s(s)a, inessive); (cf. Japanese -*sa:, noun of quality or place)

B**(A34) nominal: S[H]A ("rest, place"), -tza, job or profession; (IE possibly -s- in -sk[^]o); (Japanese -s-, adjectivizer, in aka-s-i, be red)

B***(A34) nominal: S[H]A ("female"), Basque -sa, female; (IE -sa in -i-sa, feminine [cf. Latin -issa]); (cf. Nama -s, female)

(A35) verbal: S[H]E ("individual"), (Japanese -se, causative); see (A6): verbal: $O above

(A35) nominal: S[H]E ("individual"), (IE singular in -s); (Altaic as -z, Turkish suffix of one of objects occurring in pairs); (Beng in sia, male).

(A36) verbal: S[H]O ("clan-member=same=so"), (IE swe-, *same, listed incorrectly under se-; mes-, listed under 1. e:-); (Japanese -*s in negative irrealis -z- (from -*n-i-s- [NA-?A-$E-S[H]O= "not so"], 327); and -mas [M[H]A-S[H]O="hold so"], 327)

B*(A36) verbal: S[H]O ("good"), Basque z-, prefix of the third person past (really properly an intensive) {see also (A2) above}; (IE some s-mobile, an intensive); (cf. Egyptian s-, causative; this is not a true causative but rather an intensive: "well")

*(A36) verbal: S[H]O-$E ("follow-like"), (IE se:i-, *so, listed under se-); (Japanese shi, and)

B(A36) nominal: S[H]O ("clan=good"), Basque -so, family relationshop; (IE in su-, good); (Japanese OJ so:-, intensive prefix)

*(A36) nominal: S[H]O-$E ("clan-member-like"), (IE secondary -s, 2nd p. sing. of active; syo-, this, listed under so[s]); (cf. Altaic -si/?, 3rd p. sing.; in sen, you [sing.]); (cf. Uralic sä, he/she/it); (Beng in sO\N, person, someone, somebody, body); (Japanese in so(-)re, it, that; so-no, that, those)

B**(A36) nominal: S[H]O ("clan[-member]"), Basque -z, plural absolutive verbal suffix (see Trask 1997: 221-2); (IE in -es, nominative plural)

B(A37) nominal: T[?]A ("hand"); Basque d- as a third person prefix for present tense verbs; (cf. IE de-, "demonstrative stem, I-deictic in part"; cf. Greek dé:, "even, now, just, certainly"; (cf. Altaic -de/a, locative; (a lative [at the side of, with] in languages all over the world; seen dimly in IE ablative -e:/o:d, possibly a metathesis of *-d+e: (T?A+HHE, "go away from the hand") to facilitate pronunciation of vowelless stems); (cf. Beng , díN, next to); (cf. Uralic -t(Vogul), locative); (cf. Sumerian -da, locative); (Japanese de (from "T[?]A-$E), at/in/on (the hand of); by means of (through the hand of))

(A38) verbal: -T[H]O, ("approach, gather"), (IE 2. to-); (cf. Uralic -*ta/ä, allative ["toward"] [cf. Nenets dative -n~to/-h]); (Japanese to, and, as soon as)

*(A38) verbal: -T[H]O (iterative), (IE -to, perfective passive participle); (cf. Altaic -d/tperfective); (Japanese -ta, perfect [the a for expected o is unexplained]) ; also -t-, perfect (Miller: 326);

B(A38) nominal: T[H]O (definite animate plural), Basque -to, augmentative; (IE 1. to-)

B*(A38) nominal: -"T[H]O-$E ("tribesman-like"), Basque -te, gerund; (IE -ti, nomina agentis and nomina actionis; [cf. IE sru-ti-s, a flowing, streaming, from sreu-); (cf. Uralic -tya in kun-tya, urine); (Japanese -te, one who performs, gerund)

B**(A38) nominal: -"T[H]O-$E ("tribesman-like"), Basque -te, ergative NP plural verbal suffix (see Trask 1997: 221-2); -te, abundance; -ti, group of men (T[H]O-"$E); (IE -ti, collective)

(A39) verbal: T[?]SE-FA ("releasing=going away"), (IE *dheu-, listed under 3. dhe:-); (Japanese -zu, negative)

(A40) nominal: TS[H]O (circle of animates), (IE in -tu, forms abstract substantives; TS[H]O-F[H]A); (cf. [Sino-]Tibetan -tsho, plural).

*(A40) nominal: TS[H]O ("circling"), (IE ter-, there [Egyptian >3], listed incorrectly under 1. to-); (cf. Uralic "essive" -ta; Sumerian -ta, instrumental); (Japanese to, [along] with)

**(A40) nominal: TS[H]O, (IE to, then, under 1. to-); (Japanese to, when)

(A41)verbal: X[H]A-F[H]A ("resting=(be)come"), (IE *kwe- in kwey6-); (Japanese -k[w] in forms of adjectives except non-past indicative, from kú-ru, come)

(A42) nominal: X[H]O (large indefinite animate plural), (IE kwo-); (cf. Egyptian S in iSzt, what? [S <- X]);(Japanese ka, interrogative particle ('what?'); indefinite [the Japanese a for expected o is unexlained];

*(A42) nominal: X[H]O-HA ("at the quanity"), (cf. IE kwei-, as, listed under kwo- ["of the quantity of"]); (cf. Uralic Nenets simulatives in -r-xa); (cf. Altaic -ca, aequativus) ["at the quantity of"]); (Japanese koo, this way)

B(A43) nominal: HHA-$E-KX[H]O ("water-like=sea+shell=property"), Basque ergative *-ek; (IE e:ik-, "have as one's own; be able to"); (Sumerian genitive -ak)

B*(A44) (S)OV is the earliest Basque word-order, corresponding to OV established by Lehmann for earliest IE; S-OV (and possibly OV-S, which may have distinguished between imperfective and perfective aspects before singular and plural elements were applied to convey the same aspects) word-order stems from the language of the active-type phase, where the transitive subject is only loosely linked to the object-"verb", which is primary, and need not be expressed overtly, a characteristic which many active/ergative-type languages amply illustrate; Basque, Beng (Southern Mandé), Japanese and Sumerian also have SOV,which should also be assumed for Altaic and Uralic (proved by the invariable rectum-regensword order of Uralic and Altaic [except Northern Tungus]).

*(A45) verbal: REDUPLICATION indicates habituality; however, when the iterative -*to (-ta) began to be used for the perfective, reduplication was re-defined as iterative: e.g. in Japanese, when *ker-, *run, is reduplicated, the vowel -a- represents a stress un-accented root -e-: *ke"ker- -> kakér-u, run; kák-u, write; stem: ka(i)-.

B*(A46) Basque -u, circumlocative, in gu, "we, (to and for) us"; and zu, "(to and for) you (singular but formerly plural); (Japanese archaically preserves archaic features of the Proto-Language (active-type) period, during which the transitive subject formed a separate sub-phrase of the sentence, and was frequently deleted. When the context required it to be included, the early ergative-type sub-phrases were formed: S + F[H]A, literally, (something) is 'circling around' the S, which is actually a topicalizer rather than a formative of the ergative subject; this element is very old; we can see it in - su, the IE locative plural (-s + -u); and possibly the Latin nominative in -u; and in IE pronominal forms with -w, e.g. tewe; in -w, the Egyptian independent pronoun ending (zw, he [topic {subject} of stative]; him [topic {notobject} of transitive verb]); Afrasian nominative in -u; Hurrian dative (of interest) -wa.

**(A46) (Japanese: the direct object marker (*w)o is a relatively late innovation; according to Shibatani, "it was more common not to mark the direct object at all (p. 340)" in the earliest records; this is the most archaic pattern; in spite of the Japanese orthographical details, this particle seems to mean "toward", which would suggest a derivation from PL HHO, "come down on" (cf. IE 1. o, to, with; [cf. Egyptian h3]); this correlates better with the Japanese vocative and hortative use of o (cf. IE 2. o:, vocative) .

B(A47) to view a short essay on Basque word-formation, press

The correspondence of 110 roots and 40+ formants suffices for a preliminary study to establish the presumption of a genetic relationship.