by Patrick C. Ryan
(Rev. 6/ 23 /2008)
The purpose of this short essay is to establish as a hypothesis that IE and Blackfoot are both descended from a common ancestor, which, I term the Proto-Language — from the form into which it had developed by about 40-15K BPE.
This date is based on the estimates of Cavalli-Sforza for the separation of the peoples of Northeast Asia and America (The Great Human Diasporas, p. 123) from the "main" branch of the people speaking the Proto-Language. During this phase of development, the Proto-Language was passing out of a ergative-type morphology into a nominative-type morphology (G. A. Klimov).
Blackfoot has retained classifiers to help distinguish otherwise homophonous roots semantically.
Its word order is inconsistently SOV with Adj + Noun but V + O in agglutinative compounds, what we would expect from any language that is developing towards nominative syntax.
Blackfoot (Algonquian) separated from the main branch of the Proto-Language after the stage of development (Pontic) in which the oldest semantic contrasts of CE / CA / CO were replaced by CyV, C(-)V, and CwV, the superscripts indicating semi-consonantal glides or no glide. Unfortunately, in Blackfoot, the palatal and velar glides were subsequently lost without a phonological trace.
In the Table of Correspondence found after the listing of lexical cognates below, the column entitled PROTO-LANGUAGE shows the earliest syllables before vocalic contrasts were replaced by a contrast of glides and no glide (during
An excellent online resource for Amerind and global etymologies is at the
TOWER OF BABEL, founded by Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin, and now part of the Evolution of Human Languages project at the Santa Fe Institute.
An important new resource for Nostratic studies is the website Nostratica, instituted by Kirill Babaev, the founder of the Cybalist language discussion group at Yahoo! Groups.
Similar tables of equivalence can and have been constructed for the Proto-Language, IE and Afrasian, Altaic, Basque, Beng (Southern Mandé), Blackfoot (Algonquian) (present essay), Dravidian (incomplete), Etruscan, Hurrian-Urartian, Japanese, Mon/Hmong, Nama, Pama-Nyungan (incomplete), (Sino-)Tibetan, Sumerian, and Uralic.
#=unattested (as yet); *=systematically irregular; :=long vowel; &=modified in combination. |
PROTO-
LANGUAGE |
INDO-
EUROPEAN |
BLACKFOOT | may be used for annotation | may be used for annotation |
?E
+ HE |
HV(a)
+ HV: |
i (#A2)
+ h(#) |
. | . |
?A
+ HA |
HV
+ HV: |
a(#26); i(#A46); aa (#22); ø (#44) + h(#) |
. | . |
?O
+ HO |
HV
+ HV: |
ø(#7, 12)
+ h(#) |
. | . |
P[?]E
+ P[H]E |
b(h)/wV
+ pV |
p(#)
+ p(#) |
. | . |
P[?]A
+ P[H]A |
b(h)/wV
+ pV |
p(#)
+ p(#41) hp (#33) |
. | . |
P[?]O
+ P[H]O |
b(h)/wV
+ pV |
p(#)
+ p(#/41)
|
. | . |
P[?]FE
+ PF[H]E |
bhV
+ p[h]V: |
p(#)
+ p(#)
|
. | . |
P[?]FA
+ PF[H]A |
bhV(b)
+ p[h]V: |
p(#)
?p(#46) + p(#)
|
. | . |
P[?]FO
+ PF[H]O |
bhV
+ p[h]V: |
p(#)
+ p(#) |
. | . |
FE
+ F[H]E |
wV
+ wV: |
w(#)
+ w(#) |
. | . |
FA
+ F[H]A |
wV
+ wV: |
w(#27)
o(#7, 12, 10, 18, 19,32, 35, 46) oo(#39) aa(#21) + o(5, 15, 17, 24, 38, 47)
|
. | . |
FO
+ F[H]O |
wV
+ wV: |
w(#)
+ w(#)
|
. | . |
T[?]E
+ T[H]E |
dV
+ tV |
t(#)
+ t(#) |
. | . |
T[?]A
+ T[H]A |
dV
+ tV |
t(#)
?t(#16, 44) + t(19) |
. | . |
T[?]O
+ T[H]O |
Dv
+ tV |
t(#25)
+ t(#) |
. | . |
T[?]SE
+ TS[H]E |
dhV
+ t[h]/twV: |
t(#)
+ t(#) |
. | . |
T[?]SA
+ TS[H]A |
dhV(c)
+ t[h]/twV: |
t(#39)
+ t(#) |
. | . |
T[?]SO
+ TS[H]O |
dhV
+ t[h]/twV: |
t(#)
?t(#16m) + t(#) |
. | . |
SE
+ S[H]E |
sV
+ sV: |
s(#2, 3, 8, 20, 23, 41, 45)
+ s(#) |
. | . |
SA
+ S[H]A |
sV
+ sV: |
s(#A5, 11)
ss(#4,5,6) + s(#) |
. | . |
SO
+ S[H]O |
sV
+ sV: |
s(#12, 15)
+ s(#47) |
. | . |
K[?]E
+ K[H]E |
g[^]V
+ k[^]V |
k(#)
+ k(#4)
|
. | . |
K[?]A
+ K[H]A |
gV
+ kV |
k(#44)
+ k(#) |
. | . |
K[?]O
+ K[H]O |
gV
+ kV |
k(#9)
(#46) + k(#22) |
. | . |
K[?]XE
+ KX[H]E |
g[^]hV
+ k[^][h]V: |
k(#)
+ k(#5, 13)
|
. | . |
K[?]XA
+ KX[H]A |
ghV(d)
+ k[h]V: |
k(#)
+ k(#6, 47)
|
. | . |
K[?]XO
+ KX[H]O |
ghV
+ k[h]V: |
k(#)
hk(#42) + k(#) |
. | . |
XE
+ X[H]E |
g[^][w]V
+ k[^][w]V |
k(#14)
+ k(#) |
. | . |
XA
+ X[H]A |
g[w]V
+ k[w]V |
k(#)
+ k(#8) |
. | . |
XO
+ X[H]O |
g[w]V
+ k[w]V |
k(#)
+ k(#)
|
. | . |
ME
+ M[H]E |
mV
+ mV: |
m(#2, 3, 31)
+ m(#37) |
. | . |
MA
+ M[H]A |
mV
+ mV: |
m(#26)
+ m(#36) |
. | . |
MO
+ M[H]O |
mV
+ mV: |
m(#7, 12)
+ m(#) |
. | . |
NE
+ N[H]E |
l[^]V
+ l[^]V: |
n(#)
+ n(#) |
. | . |
NA
+ N[H]A |
nV
+ lV: |
n(#1, 21, 25, 27,30, 32, 40)
ø(final avocalic) + n(#9) |
. | . |
NO
+ N[H]O |
nV
+ LV: |
n(#28, 39)
+ n(#) |
. | . |
QE
+ Q[H]E |
(n)g[^]V
+ (n)k[^]V: |
n(#)
kk(#45 final) + k(#23) |
. | . |
QA
+ Q[H]A |
(n)gV
+ (n)kV: |
n(#)
+ k(#)
|
. | . |
QO
+ Q[H]O |
(n)gV
+ (n)kV: |
n(#)
+ k(#) |
. | . |
RE
+ R[H]E |
rV
+ rV: |
ø(#42)
+ ø(#33, 38, 40) |
. | . |
RA
+ R[H]A |
rV
+ rV: |
ø(#12)
+ ø(#) |
. | . |
RO
+ R[H]O |
rV
+ LV: |
ø(#36, 46)
+ ø(#) |
. | . |
PL / IE / BLACKFOOT LEXICAL COMPARISONS
(IE entries in parentheses are keywords in Pokorny unless marked by *)
[Blackfoot entries are from Frantz
1991 and Frantz and Russell 1989]
The palatal and velar glides that resulted from the Pontic stage reductions of CE and CO to CyA and CwA have been lost without a trace. As a consequence, verbal and nominal roots (CV[C]) carry such little semantic information that they have had to be expanded into verbal and nominal stems to provide semantic differentiation. |
(1)¿A-NA ("eye-thing"), in-i (vti) / in-o(1) (vta), "see" ; (IE e:n, "look there!" )
(2)SE-¿E-ME ("excrete-like-emit"), sim (vta), "stab" ("[cause to] drip"); (IE sei-m-, "drip, run, damp", listed under sei-)
(3)SE-¿E-ME ("excrete-like-emit"), sim-i(2) (via), "drink" ("[cause to] drip"+object); (IE sei-m-, "drip, run, damp", listed under sei-)
(4)SA-"K[H]E-¿E ("strong-gray-like"), in sski, (adj) "dark"; (IE sk[^]a:i-, "shimmer subduedly; shadow (reflection)"
(5)SA-"KX[H]E-F[H]A ("strong-run-(n)ing"), in ssko (vta), "chase"; (cf. IE 5. sk[^]eu- in 2. (s)keud-, "throw, shoot, hunt"; intr. "shoot past, hurry, shoot out")
(6)SA-KX[H]A-¿E ("strong-clear[ly delineated]-like"), in sski (nroot), "face (*features)"; (IE (s)ka:i-, "bright, illuminating, *clear")
(7) MO-FA+?O-FA ("flesh-es"=body-part classifier+"mouth-s"), maoó (*mao+*o(:)) (in), "mouth"; (IE in mu:s-, "muscle"[MO-FA-SA, "flesh-es-sinew"]; in 1. ous-, "mouth, orifice, edge")
(8)SE-¿A-X[H]A ("excrete-d-flat [pan] = shrink"), sik (adj), "black or dark (*dried out and shrunken)"; IE seik[w]-, "dry", listed under seik[w]-, "gush out, sift, let run, dribble")
(9)"K[?]O-N[H]A, ("twist-start to . . .=put together tightly "), kan (adj), "all"; (IE (s)+*gel- = *kel-, *hold, listed incorrectly under 5. kel-, "drive, incite to fast movement, *hold"; cf. 2. (s)kel-, "owe, be guilty, should"; g(e)leu-, "balled mass", listed under 1.gel-, "ball up, form a ball, something rounded, conical"); (cf. Egyptian Tnw, "number"); (cf. Arabic kullun, "all")
(10)HHA-F[H]A-T[?]A ("water-s-give"), ots-i (vta), "douse with water" (give water"+object) / (vai), "swim"; (IE wed-, "water", listed under 9. aw(e)-, "sprinkle, dampen, flow")
(11)SA-HHA ("strong-water"), in saaá-m (in), "medicine or powers of healing"; (IE in sa:no-s, "healthy, healed")
(12)MO-FA+?O+RA-SO ("flesh-es"=body-part classifier+"mouth+back-skin"), móós (*mo + *a(:)s) (an), "anus"; (IE ers-, "behind, tail")
(13)¿E-KX[H]E-¿O ("raise-[move] fast"+causative+object), iki-i (via), "do"; (IE *y6ky-, "throw, make, do", listed under ye:-: y6-)
(14)XE-¿E ("body-hair-like"), kaayíí-s (in), "quill"; (IE g[w]ey6-, "hide, pelt", listed under g[w]e:i-; *g[w]ei-, "*quill", in MHG kil, "quill", listed under 1. g[w]el-, "1. stick; 2. (penetrating) pain, misery, death")
(15)P[H]O-F[H]A-SO ("swell-ing-pull=inflate"), poos (an), "cat" (cf. also o-hpoos); (IE peus-, "swell up", listed under 1. pu/u:-, "blow up, swell")
(16)MO-FA-T[?]A-¿E / T[?]SO-¿E ("flesh-es"=body-part classifier+"hand-like / arm-like"), mo?tsí(s) (in), "hand, arm"; (IE *dei-, "*hand", in deik[^]-, "point, indicate something with words, say, point out the correct thing, point at the culprit, accuse"; also doig[^]-)
(17)HHA-F[H]A-X[H]O ("water-s"-large animate plural), aohk-íí (in), "water"; (cf. IE akwa:-, "water, river"; the Blackfoot form differs only in preferring the plural termination -F[H]A)
(18)FA-FA ("all-round"), owáá (in), "egg"; (IE o(w)y-om, "egg"; dissimilated from *wawa)
(19)T[H]A ("fox"), o-táá (an), "weasel (that has a brown summer coat)"; cf. also otáátoyi (an), "fox" (otáá + [o]toyi, "red-tail"?; cf. otahko, "orange"; otaikimm, "gold" ); (IE *to-t- in Middle English stote, "stoat")
(20)X[H]O-¿E-SE ("exhale-like-excrete (forcefully)"), hksis (nroot), "nose"; (IE k[^][w]eis-, "hiss, whistle, *sneeze", listed under 2. k[^][w]ei-; cf. kse:u-, "sneeze", listed under 3. ske:u-)
(21)(NA-)¿A-NA(-F[H]A) ("(the-)eye-thing(-animate)"), (n)ínaa (an), "chief"; (cf. IE e:n, "look there")
(22)?A-K[H]O-¿E ("family-little[one]-like"), aakíí (an), "woman"; (IE akka:, "mother")
(23)Q[H]E-¿E-SE ("spur-like-seed"), ksis, (adj), "pointed, sharp"); (IE ak[^]i- listed under 2. ak[^]-, "sharp, pointed, edged, stone")
(24)F[H]A-¿E ("wolf-voice"), oyi-mm (vta), "mourn"; (IE wai-, "woe, *wail")
(25)T[?]O-¿E-NA ("organ-like-thing"), ma-tsiní, (in), "tongue"; (IE in dng[^]u:-, "tongue" [cf. Old Latin dingua, "tongue"])
(26)MA-?A ("full"+stative), ma?-s (in), "edible bulbous root"; (IE 2. ma:-, "good, at a good time, *ripe")
(27)N[H]A-¿E-FA ("wave-like-palm"), naaw (adj), "left"; (IE laiwo-, "left")
(28)NO-¿E ("stomach-like=exciting"), naa-t (adj), "fortunately"; naa-to (adj), "holy, sacred"; (IE 2. nei-, ""be move vigorously, be excited, gleam")
(29)K[H]E-¿E ("dog-like"), o-hki (via), "bark"; cf. o-hk(*y)a-t (vta), "bark at" (the initial o- indicates the activity of an animate; the "transitive form" is a result of -t [T[?]A, "side"] being incorporated into the stem (*ohka), creating, in effect, a locative orientation);
(30)Q[H]O-NA ("squeeze, start to. . . [press together, as a crowd]"), o-hkan (adj), "all (animate)" [here the simple root has been prefixed by o- [F[H]A] to indicate an animate; (IE 1. ken-, "push together")
(31)KX[H]A-NA ("hum-emit [be husky]"), o-hkama-t (vta), "threaten" (see #30 for o- and -t); (IE 2. kem-, "hum, be hoarse, husky")
(32)Q[H]A-¿E-NA ("hard-like-thing"), o-hkin (in), "bone"; (IE *ke(i)n-, "*bone", in Middle Irish cna:im, "bone", listed incorrectly under 2. ken-, "scratch, chip, rub"
(33)P[H]A-R[H]E ("over-come"), o-hpáa-ta-ki (via), "carry something"; (IE per-, "lead, come, bring over, set over, force through, fly")
(34)PF[H]E-¿E ("jump-like"), o-hpii (adj), "hurried"; (IE s+*p(h)ei-, "hurry", in Lithuanian speme[~], "haste", listed incorrectly under 3. sp(h)e:i-, "prosper, spread out=become fat, proceed, have success, succeed")
(35)PF[H]A-¿E-FA ("fat-like-round"), o-hpo (adj), "greasy, oily"; (IE *pi:-w-, "fat", listed under pey(6)-, "be fat, bulge")
(36)M[H]A-RO ("bite (off)-large"), o-máa-t (vta), "plague, pester"; (IE 6. mer-, "bother, irritate, neglect, forget")
(37)M[H]E-KX[H]E ("thin-long"), o-mahk (adj), "big, old"(cf. o-mahks-i (via), "be older, larger"; (IE ma:k[^]-, "long and thin, slender")
(38)R[H]E-F[H]A-NA ("come-ing-one"), on (adj), "swift"; (IE *reun-, in English run, listed under 3. er-, "put into motion, excite (also spiritually, irritate, tease), raise (elevation, grown high)"
(39)NO-FA-T[?]SA ("feel-ing-body"), o-noots-i (via), "hunger for food, have sexual desire"; (IE neu-dh-, "desire, long for")
(40)R[H]E-F[H]A ("come-ing"), oo (via), "go (move, travel, ambulate)"; (IE reu-, listed under 3. er-, "put into motion, excite (also spiritually, irritate, tease), raise (elevation, grown high))"
(41)P[H]A[/P]H]O]-¿E-SE ("over-[/swell up]like-excrete"), o-pisa-a (via), "boil meat over an open fire"; (IE *peis-, "*boil", in Greek épso:, "I boil", listed under eph-, "boil" [cf. IE 1. pe/e:s-, "blow, moan"; Egyptian p[/f]si (for *p[/f]izi), "cook"{Coptic pise:}])
(42)RE-FA-K[?]XO ("scratch-ing-hole"), o?k (adj), "raw"; (IE reugh-, "raw", listed under 2. reu-, "rip up, excavate, stir up, rip out, grab")
(43)RO-FA-K[?]O ("raise-ing- twist"), oka-a-sa-t (vta), "grab, pick up" [-animate-"out-at"]; (IE reug-, "pluck", listed under 2. reu-, "rip up, excavate, stir up, rip out, grab")
(44)T[?]A-?A-K[?]A ("side"-stative-"cup"), o-?tak-i (via), "take (something)"; (IE de:g-, "pack (?), *take")
(45)SE-¿A-QE ("excrete-ed-congeal"), sikk (vroot), "decrease the mass of, lower"; (IE *seing-, "sink", in English sink, listed under sengw-, "fall, sink")
(46)P[?]FA-F[H]O ("prominent-wail"); i-?po-yi (via), "talk, speak, speak harshly"; (IE b(h)eu-, "onomatopoeic for dull sounds, *yell", listed under 1. b(e)u-; cf. 2. bha:-, "speak")
(47)S[H]O-F[H]A-KX[H]A ("clan-s=good-burn"), sok (adj), "good"; (IE swek-, "smell (good)")
(48)S[H]O-F[H]A-K[?]A-¿E-NA ("clan-s=good-cup-like-thing=contents"), ss-kin-i (vti), "know"; (IE su, "well, good" + 2. g[^]en- [for *gyen-], "recognize, know")
(49)S[H]O-F[H]A-FA-Q[H]A ("clan-s=good-round-hump"), ssok-o (vroot), "heavy"; (IE su, "well, good" + wenk-, "bend"= swenk-, "ponderous (pregnant), be heavy")
(50)S[H]O-F[H]A-P[H]A-R[H]E ("clan-s=good-over-come"), ss-p (vroot), "up, high"; (IE su, "well, good" + 2. per, "over")
(51)S[H]O-F[H]A-T[?]A-?A-¿E ("clan-s=good-be at the side"-stative-"like"), ss-tayi (via), "tie and stretch a hide in preparation for scraping"; (IE su, "well, good" + de:i-, "bind", listed under de:-)
(52)F[H]O-RE ("wail-apply"), waa-n-ii (via), "say (something)"; (IE 6. wer-, "say ceremonially, speak")
(53)S[H]O-F[H]A-T[?]SE-?A ("clan-s=good-suck"-stative), ss-taa (via), "suck milk/nurse"; (IE su, "well, good" + dhe:(i)-, "suck, nurse")
(54)S[H]O-F[H]A-T[H]O-P[H]A-¿E-K[H]O ("clan-s=good-approach"-diminutive-"-like-little "), ss-tahp-ik (adj), "by choice"; (IE su, "well, good" + top-, "arrive at somewhere, run into or fall into, place that one reaches or wants to reach, *intend"; cf. Egyptian stp, "choose")
(55)S[H]O-F[H]A-TS[H]A-F[H]A-K[H]O ("clan-s=good-excessive-(be)ing-little"), ss-to-k (adj), "extensive/excessive/to a great degree"); (IE st-eu-, "massive, firm, thick, wide", listed incorrectly understa:-, "stand, set up")
(56)S[H]O-F[H]A-TS[H]A-F[H]A-T[?]SE-¿O ("clan-s=good-stand-up-ing=stake-release-object"), ss-tao-?ts-i (vti), "pound a post or stick into the ground"; (IE st(h)a:u-, "stand, post", listed under sta:-, "stand, set up" + 2. dhe:-, "set, place, lay")
(57)(?A[???])-HHE-R[H]A-P[?]E ("smoke-color-pour out"), a-áápa-n (nin), "blood"; (IEe/e:reb(h)-, "dark red, brownish hues")
(58)HHA-R[H]A-P[?]FO-¿E ("water-color=white-place-like"), áápi (adj), "white/light-colored"; (IE *ar-, "white", listed under ar(e)g[^]-, "shining, whitish"; 3. ar-, "nut"; for construction, cf. albho-, "white"; HHA-N[H]A, "water-wave")
(59)(?A-[???])P[H]A-?A-K[?]XA ("flat"-stative-"hang="shaving"), a-pak (adj), "wide and flat"; (IE spe:g-, "shaving", listed under sp(h)e:-, "long, flat piece of wood")
(60)P[H]A-N[H]A-¿E ("over-move-like"), a-pánii (nan), "butterfly/moth"); (IE 1. pel-, "fly, flap"; cf. Latin pa:pilio:, "butterfly")
(61)?A-P[?]FE-¿E ("here-foot-like"), a?pii (vii), "be in a specified way"; (IE *abhi-, "around, at both sides", listed under ambhi-)
(62)R[H]A-¿E-K[?]XA ("high-like-hang=suspend"), ika (vta), "share with, give to"; (IE *reig-, listed under reig[^]-, "stretch, stretch out, reach or offer with outstretched hand"; cf. Egyptian s3H, "reach, arrive at")
(63)RE-¿E-K[H]XA ("fingernail-like-hurt=scratch"), ika (nroot), "feet"; (IE reik(h)-, "scratch", listed under 1. rei-, "scratch, rip, cut"; cf. Egyptian (s)3H, "toe")
(64)K[H]XA-¿E-?A-T[?]A-¿O ("hurt-like-here-give-object"), i-kai?ts-i (vti), "dislike"; (IE k[^]a:d- (for *kya:d-), "emotional uneasiness, sorrow, hatred")
(65)[???]-K[H]XE-F[H]A ("run-(n)ing"), ik-kaa-yi (via), "canter, run fast" (ik- from *it-, *toward"[???]); (IE s + k[^]eu-, listed under 5. ske:u-, "throw, shoot, pursue")
(66)S[H]E-KX[H]E-¿A ("leave-run"-perfective), sa-ksi (via), "exit from a room or building" (sa (adj), "out"); (IE se, "to one side, separated"; ke:i-, "set in movement, be in movement, *run")
(67)KX[H]O-¿A ("cut"-perfective), i-ksi (nroot), "wood/root(?)"; (IE in kaito-, "woods, uncultivated strip of land"; cf. Egyptian xt, "wood")
(68)KX[H]A-¿A-S[H]A ("burn-ed-quality"), i-ksis-t (adj), "hot, warm, heat"; (IE *kais-, "*heat", in Lithuanian kaistù, >"become hot", listed under 3. ka/a:i-, "heat")
(69)KX[H]A-¿E-S[H]A ("bee-like-quality=pointed"), ksis (adj), "pointed, sharp"; (IE kais-, "hair")
(70)P[?]O-R[H]E-K[?]E ("cheek-come-split open"), i-pakk (vroot), "burst"; (IE 1. bhreg[^]-, "break, crack"; bhereg-, "roar, bark, make noise")
(71)P[?]FO-FA-T[?]A ("trunk=club-(b)ing-give"),
i-pot (vta), "batter/beat"; (IE bhaud-, listed under
bha:u-, "beat, push")
{vti, transitive verb stem with inanimate objects;
vta, transitive verb stem with animate object}
{vii, intransitive verb stem with inanimate subject;
via, intransitive verb stem with animate subject}
{vroot, verb root requiring a final
element to determine the verbal category for a verbal stem}
{an, animate noun stem; in, inanimate noun stem; +p, requires possessive to precede}
{nroot, noun root, used only in compounds,
requiring an additional element for a noun stem}
{adj, adjective root, used only in compounds)
{dem, demonstrative; pro, pronoun; part, uninflected particle; fin, final element to determine verbal category; inst, instrumental final element to determine nominal gender category}
PL MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS IN BLACKFOOT
(not included under lexical headings)
at this time. |
to investigate these phonological correspondences in detail, see the
TABLE OF PL / IE / BLACKFOOT CORRESPONDENCES
NOTATIONAL CONVENTIONS
Blackfoot
The notation of the Blackfoot forms and roots discussed in this essay follows the style of Donald G. Frantz(3) except the glottal stop, /?/, is written ? rather than '.
Consonants
p t k
w s
y
? h
(NOTE: Blackfoot stops are unaspirated; all consonants may be doubled, and are long, except h and ?)
"Long" Consonants
It appears that one source for long (doubled) consonants is deletion of a vowel due to lack of stress-accent: C1V"C2V = C1C1C2V.
Vowels
i , I, (ii/II), a, (aa), o (oo)
The difference between i and I is simply that i derives from PL ¿V; therefore it causes palatalization of the preceding stop: ki becomes ksi; I, on the other hand, stems from PL ?V. It does not cause palatalization of the preceding stop.
Pitch
Pitch is phonemic in Blackfoot, and the acute accent indicates high pitch:
á.
Final vowels are unvoiced.
Summary of Phonological Changes from Proto-Language to
Blackfoot(Algonquian)
Combinatory Modifications
for modifications of the vowels and consonants in combination,
see the Table of Modifications
PROTO-LANGUAGE MONOSYLLABLES
In order for readers to judge the semantic plausibility of the analysis of Proto-Language (PL) compounds suggested here, I am including access to a table of Proto-Language monosyllables and the meanings I have provisionally assigned.
Most assignments can be exhaustively supported by data from actually attested forms but a few animates are very doubtful; and this list does not represent the "final" solution of these questions, which will only be approached when other scholars assist in refining it.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca and Cavalli-Sforza, Francesco. 1995. The
Great Human Diasporas: The History of Diversity and Evolution. New York etal. Helix Books. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
Frantz, Donald G. 1991. Blackfoot Grammar. Toronto:
University of Toront of Press
and Russell, Norma Jean. 1989. Blackfoot Dictionary of Stems,
Roots, and Affixes. Toronto: University of Toronto Press
Klimov, Georgij A. 1977. Tipologija Jazykov Aktivnogo
Stroja. Moscow: Nauka
-------------------------1983. Printsipy Kontensivnoi Tipologij. Moscow: Nauka
Pokorny, Julius. 1959. Indogermanisches Etymologisches
Wörterbuch. Volume I. Bern and Munich: Francke Verlag
the latest revision of this document can be found at
HTTP://WWW.GEOCITIES.COM/Athens/Forum/2803/c-BLACKFOOT-11.htm
Patrick C. Ryan * 9115 West 34th Street - Little Rock, AR 72204-4441* (501)227-9947
PROTO-LANGUAGE@msn.com
a. The Pontic stage of the Proto-Language, from which Indo-European and Afrasian developed, had only one V : (a), which became e, a, or o in Indo-European according to the Ablautgradation required by the grammatical form.
b. Final IE voiced aspirated stops + a can become unaspirated: -bha b(a); -gha -g(a); -dha -d(a).
c. v. 2. supra
d. v. 2. supra
BR>
1. The most basic categories of Blackfoot are inanimate, indicated by reflexes of ¿O, "object, in the form of -i; and animate, indicated by reflexes of F[H]A, "circling around", a topicalizer, in the form of -o [see Morphology, (A45)].
2. -¿O, pseudo-intransitive [see Morphology, (A45)].
3. Blackfoot Grammar. 1991. Toronto: University of Toronto Press