Ryan Reeder
March 1, 1999
I. 1. I have read all of parts two and three (83-294; 413-439) of Temples of the Ancient World.
2. Sacred Space is distinguished from profane space because it is set apart through manifestations of the divine, its location relative to other sacred space or some other aspect which causes it to become sacred. For example, at various times throughout history, God has appeared to man. Often, when the space is known, it has been demarcated as sacred. This was the case when God appeared to Moses on Mt. Sinai (Horeb). By virtue of God having spoken with Moses face to face, and the bestowal of the law there, and the camp of Israel having seen the mountain burn with fire and there covenanting to keep the commandments of the Lord, this place was perceived as sacred. Another sacred spot in ancient Israel is Beth-el (House of God), whose very name indicates its sacral, even temple-like nature. The Israelites perceived this place on the border between Benjamin and Ephraim as "one of the most sacred spots in Israel (Bible Dictionary p. 621). This was where Abraham built an altar and "called on the name of the Lord" (Gen. 13:4). Later, his grandson Jacob passed through there on his way to Padan-aram and had a vision of angels ascending and descending on a ladder to heaven. There, the Abrahamic covenant was renewed with Jacob, and he named it Beth-el, saying "this is none other but the house of God" (Gen.28:17). Today, members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints view the grove of trees where Joseph Smith was visited by the Father and the Son as sacred. Other sites regarded as sacred space included the garden of Eden (kept sacred by the expulsion of
Adam and Eve when they became unclean), the threshingfloor of Araunah the Jebusite, and temple grounds, including those of the St. George and Manti temples, which are said to have been consecrated by the mortal Moroni. In accordance with these places, some of the most sacred and holy places in history have been temples.
In ancient rabbinic traditions, sacredness was viewed as that which is most proximate to the temple. In addition, it was viewed as the center of the world. Israel is the center of the world. Jerusalem is the center of Israel. The temple is the center of Jerusalem. The Holy of Holies is the center of the temple. The ark is the center of the Holy of Holies and the foundation-stone of creation. (My own paraphrase). In addition, M. Kelim 1:6-9 describes ten concentric zones of holiness, with the Holy of Holies being holier than them all, followed by the sanctuary, the space between the porch and the altar, the Court of Priests, the Court of Israel, the Court of Women, the rampart, the Temple Mount, the space within the wall of Jerusalem, the cities of Israel surrounded with walls, and the land of Israel (Parry 414). Thus, the proximity of an area to the temple was what distinguished sacred from profane space.
II. 1. John Lundquist, in his What is a Temple? A Preliminary Typology describes various aspects of temples in the ancient Near East; conditions that many of these ancient temples had in common. Some of these aspects are geographical, such as "the temple is the architectural embodiment of the cosmic mountain," "the cosmic mountain represents the primordial hillock, the place that first emerged from the waters covering the earth during the creative process," "the temple is often associated with the waters of life that flow forth from a spring within the building itself-or rather the temple is viewed as incorporating within itself or as having been built upon such a spring," and "the temple is built on separate, sacral, set-apart space" (Parry 84-89). All of these geographical features tie the temple with the garden of Eden and other sacred spaces associated with the creation. The temple is often compared symbolically with a mountain (e.g. Isa. 2:2), and quite often mountains are used as temples (as in the cases of Sinai, Shelem, and Ensign Peak, for example). The temple embodies these features in its architecture. The second point, that of the primordial hillock, connects the temple with the creation of the world, while the third links it with the Garden of Eden, which had four rivers flowing out of it. (This also shows that the Garden of Eden was located on a high space, as the water, in flowing out of the garden, would have had to also flow downward). These connections with the cosmic mountain, the creation, and the Garden of Eden, show how the temple was built on sacral space, set-apart for this purpose. An example of this is David's purchase of the threshingfloor of Araunah the Jebusite as the future site for his son Solomon to build his temple. In doing so, "the plague was stayed from Israel" (1 Samuel 24:25). We also learn that the Lord appeared to David here (1 Chr. 3:1). This was sacred space, set apart for the building of the temple.
Other examples from the temple typology include the orientation of temples toward the cardinal directions. The pyramids of Egypt were oriented this way, and latter-day temples usually have a ceremonial, if not actual, entrance on the east. Temples also show the idea of an ascension to heaven. This is exemplified with the architecture of the Babylonian ziggurats, where the temple resembled a mountain, and often led to a small temple at the top. Today, the Salt Lake Temple expresses this same idea as patrons are led upward through the various rooms.
One final example of the temple typology is the importance of it in the community in which the temple stood. It was perceived as the giver of abundance and prosperity. As such, the loss of a community's temple was seen as disastrous to its people. (Generally, however, the cause of this was disobedience and moral decadence among the people). This is perhaps best exemplified in the fall of Jerusalem about 587 B.C. The people of Judah had become very wicked and after repeated warnings, the Babylonians invaded and destroyed Jerusalem. Their destruction included taking "all the vessels of the house of God, great and small, and the treasures of the house of the Lord" and burning "the house of God" (2 Chr. 36:17-18). This constituted the fall of Jerusalem.
2. One common feature in almost all ancient societies was the rule by some king, chief, or leader. It is also interesting to note that many features of the coronation ritual are intrinsic to a variety of widely separated cultures. A few of these, including anointings, receiving of new names, and clothing in a special garment, as well as the coronation's connection with creation are examined here.
The anointing is especially interesting because of its connection with the King of Kings, Christ, or the Messiah-both of which mean the anointed. The Old Testament records the anointing of Saul, David, Solomon, and other Israelite kings. While the Egyptian Pharaoh may or may not have been anointed at his accession to the throne, he was anointed daily thereafter in performing his daily liturgy in the temple. Anointings are found in Hittite culture, in India, Cambodia, Siam, Byzantium, Russia, England, France, Hungary, Spain, and Germany. This is one aspect of the coronation ritual which is truly widespread (Parry 244).
A second aspect of coronation is the receiving of a new name. New names are associated with coronation rituals in Egypt, Mesopatamia, Parthia, Israel, Siam, Japan, and parts of Africa. Jacob indicates that Nephite kings also received new names; "wherefore the people were desirous to retain in remembrance his name. And whoso should reign in his stead were called by the people, second Nephi, third Nephi, and so forth, according to the reigns of the kings; and thus they were called by the people, let them be of whatever name they would" (Jacob 1:11). It is also interesting to note under what other contexts new names are given. Catholic Popes and some monks have taken new names upon taking their offices. The Bible records the name changes of Abram to Abraham, Sarai to Sarah, Jacob to Israel, Joseph to Zaphnath-Paaneah (though there is evidence that he retained his Hebrew name), Saul to Paul, and Simon was surnamed Peter. In addition, the receipt of a new name is promised to the faithful in Revelation 2:17 (Parry 245-47).
A third aspect of the coronation ceremony is the clothing in some special or sacred garment. This is one of the most extant of the rituals, finding place in all of the regions analyzed in Ricks' and Sroka's article-Egypt, India, Siam, Japan, England, Israel, Africa, and Fiji. Some of the best evidence for this practice comes from nations of South and East Asia. For example, in Cambodia, a red and gold mantle is placed on the king's shoulders. An old Spanish coronation rite has the king clothed in white garments with certain holes to permit the ritual anointing by the Archbishop of Pamplona (Parry 254-256).
One final aspect of coronation is its connection with the creation of the world. In Egypt, the crown prince took his place on the morning following the death of the former king, recalling the Pharaoh's traditional father Re, the Sun-god, who climbed the primeval hill causing day to break. The Indian coronation included the recreation of the universe, and the Fijian ceremony was known as the creation of the world (Parry 248).
3. In Garden of Eden: Prototype Sanctuary, (Parry 126-151) Don Parry analyzes eleven links between the Garden of Eden and the ancient Israelite temple. These include the following:
1. The tree of life, found in the midst of the garden of Eden and later protected from Adam and Eve so that they would not live forever is typified by the menorah, ten of which were found in Solomon's temple.
2. Waters are referred to in connection with the temple by Ezekiel (Ezekiel 40-47), Daniel (Daniel 7:9-11), the pseudipigraphic 1 Enoch and 3 Enoch, and by John the Revelator (Rev. 22:1-4). These waters, which proceed from the throne of glory to bless mankind are found in the Garden of Eden by a river which went out from Eden, parted into four heads, and subsequently watered the whole earth.
3. The Israelite temples were oriented to the east. This is also found in the garden of Eden which was planted "eastward in Eden," (Gen. 2:8) and whose east entrance was guarded by cherubim and a flaming sword (Gen 3:24).
4. The Garden of Eden was located on top of a mountain, as the rivers which flowed out from it flowed downward. This is also referred to by Ezekiel in Ezekiel 28:11-16, and other sources. In addition to the architecture of the Israelite temples which pointed the viewer heavenward, they were all built on the same mountain.
5. The Garden of Eden pericope immediately follows the Creation account. The creation is also connected with the temple as the construction of Solomon's temple took seven years, corresponding to the seven days of creation. In addition, God oversaw both projects.
6. Cherubim were placed in the Garden of Eden to guard the way of the tree of life. Similarly, Cherubim were located in the veils, walls, doors, and panels of the temple, as well as the mercy seat to guard the path leading to God's presence.
7. Revelation was associated with the Israelite temples, and Israelites would pray facing it. In the Garden of Eden, Adam and Eve openly communed with God.
8. Animal sacrifice is frequently attested to in the Israelite temples. In the Garden of Eden, God clothed Adam and Eve with coats of skins. Parry speculates that the skin may have been that of a lamb, sacrificed in the garden, foreshadowing the atonement of Jesus Christ.
9. Some of the same wording is employed in describing aspects of the Garden and the temple. Adam was told to dress and keep the garden, with the same Hebrew words that the Levites were instructed with to work and keep the tabernacle and its vessels. A rare reflexive verbal form indicates that God walked about in both the Garden and the temple, and the phrase "before the Lord" is employed in both situations.
10. The Israelite priests and high priests were given special garments to wear as they performed their duties, including breeches, a headpiece, a girdle, a tunic, an ephod, a robe, a breastplate, and a frontplate. Adam and Eve also had special clothing in the garden-aprons of fig leaves and coats of skins.
11. Eden and the temple are connected with abundance and prosperity. The garden of Eden was a proverb used by prophets to connote these features, as Isaiah said, "he will make her wilderness like Eden, and her desert like the garden of the Lord" (Isa 51:3). And, as earlier noted in Lundquist's typology (II. 1.), the temple was perceived as the giver of abundance and prosperity in the community in which it stood.