c-AFRASIAN-3_morphology.htm

AA/IE(A1v) verbal: "?A ("I" = "here"); (Egyptian in jn {?A-NA, ("here-thing"), "presence"}, interrogative particle, ‘**here/the presence (is . . . ?)' [cf. Arabic ?anaiya, ‘how?, whence?, where?']; also, ‘indeed' ('**here is . . .') [cf. Arabic ?inna, ‘indeed']); (Arabic interrogative particle ?a-, ‘**here (is . . . ?)'); (IE *1. e/e:, o/o:, ‘near by, together with', in expanded form, *2. an-, ‘there, on the other hand', *secondary interrogative particle (cf. Latin an, which also preserves the affirmative meaning, e.g. annon?, ‘or is it not so?' (‘indeed [or] not?')^1.) but with a basal meaning of ‘here' (cf. Old Irish an-d, ‘here'); in lengthened final vowels: e.g. in *g[^]he(:)-, emphatic particle); (cf. Basque -a-, present tense prefix (see Trask 1997:223)); (cf. Beng *-:, stative); (cf. Japanese a-, copula ( MJ á-ru, ‘be at, exist'; in combination: ni a na; de a da))

AA/IE(A1n) nominal: ?A ("I" = "here") / ?E ("he/she/it" = "over there") / ?O ("you" = "there"); (Egyptian in independent pronoun basis for 1^st p. pronouns, jn- {?A-NA, ("here-thing"), "presence"} in jn.k, 'I, **my presence', and jn.n, 'we, **our presence'; for 2^nd and 3^rd p. pronouns, jnt- {?A-NA-T[?]O, ("here-thing-torso"), "physical presence"; cf. Old Irish an-d, ‘here'}, in jnt.f, 'he, **his physical presence'); (Arabic ?a-, 1^st p. imperfect prefix); ?an-, basis for 1^st p. sing. pronoun: ?ana {for **?anâ from **anaya}, 'I, **my presence'; ?ant-, basis for 2^nd and 3^rd p. pronouns: e.g. ?anta, 'you, **physical presence'); (IE *-H₂e (-a), 1^st p. sing. perfect; *-H₄e (-e), 3rd p. sing. perfect; *3. e-, ‘this, he'; also in *ei- ["?E-¿E or ?E-¿A {see below}], ‘this, he', listed under *3. e-; and *4. au- ["?E-FA{see below}], ‘that'); (cf. Basque -a-, -e-, -o-, direct object (see Trask 1997:220)); (cf. these early pronouns are present in Old Japanese a(re), ‘I'; o(:)(re), ‘you'; and a(ti) [for *e(ti)], ‘he, she, it); (cf. Uralic e, ‘this'); (cf. Beng [Southern Mandé] O, ‘he/she/it' - with present tense [ ?E-FA {imperfective}; cf. IE *4. au-, ‘that']; (cf. Beng E, ‘he/she/it' - with past tense [ ?E-¿A {perfective}; cf. IE *ei-, ‘this, he']); (in Ryan (1990), I demonstrated the existence of an early set of deictic elements that were used as personal pronouns for the 1^st (?A), 2^nd (?O), and 3^rd persons (?E)).

AA/IE(A2v) verbal: ?E- (non-concommitant time); (Old and Late Egyptian j-, verbal augment); (IE e/e:-augment of perfect and imperfect, ‘then'); (cf. Basque e-, Biscaian past tense prefix; combined with *za/o (SA or S[H]O) into ze- when no other agreement adfix is present (Trask 1997:223))

(A2n) nominal: ?E {see ?A above}

(A3v) verbal: ?O {not identified at present}

(A3n) nominal: ?O {see above}

AA/IE(A4v) verbal: -"¿A(/HHA)("much [/ many]"= perfective [inanimate and animate]; (Egyptian -j(j), perfective ‘participle'); (IE -yo, future passive participles; participles of necessity; active or passive participles; the basis for the infinitive); (cf. Basque -i, perfective participle (Trask 1997:212)); (cf. Uralic -i, ‘past tense' marker (cf. Finnish annoin, ‘I gave', *antaim), which is really perfective); (cf. Beng past *-y (really: perfective)); (cf. Japanese -e(:)/i, infinitive); the idea behind the PL perfective is successful completion of a verbal activity; it was assumed that doing something ‘many' times or strongly (‘much') would lead to the successful completion of the activity)

IE(A4n) nominal: -¿A (/HHA)("much [/ many]"); (IE -i, plural in oblique cases and -i in neuter duals of o-stems).

AA/IE(A5v) verbal: ¿E(-?A) ("say{-here}"); (AA vocative ya); (IE *a in an, interrogative particle [PL ¿E-NA, "say-not"]); (cf. OJ ya, interrogative particle)

IE*(A5v1) verbal: -"¿E (verbal differentiation only); (IE -i in primary verbal endings e.g. -mi); (cf. Beng *-y); (cf. Japanese -i, non-past indicative of adjectives)

AA/IE(A5n) nominal: -¿E (" -like"); (AA -i [from *-ya], genitive); (IE -i, relationship of any kind to root; -i, genitive; in -yo / -iyo, adjectives of possession/origin; locative in -i is probably originally a genitive [if not from subessive ¿A, "under"]); (cf. Basque: 1) -i, "an ancient adjective-forming suffix (Trask 1997:212)", e.g. gazi, 'salty', from gatz, 'salt'; ari, 'active', from *ar, '*stack up'; Trask lumps Basque reflexes of PL ¿E, ¿A, and ¿O together: "I assume we are looking at a single suffix in all these cases (Trask 1997:212)" - but nothing could better illustrate the fallacy of considering Basque an "isolate"; 2)-e(from V + y), genitive (Trask 1997:201; "Michelena suggests (1972b) that -e might have been the original genitive ending"); (cf. Uralic -i, relationship of any kind to root); (the -i/? element of the Altaic forms: [cf. Sino-]Tibetan -yi, genitive [¿E-¿E], which has been supplemented by -q [QO, '*attached']); (cf. Beng *-y); (cf. Japanese -i/í [from *-ye] in MJ namí, 'wave'); the earliest PL "genitive" is -¿E, "-like"

AA/IE*(A5n1) nominal: -¿E-¿E ("always-like"), gentilic; (AA -iya [Egyptian gentilic -jj {/ya:/}]); (IE -iyo, see above); ([cf. Sino-]Tibetan -yi, see above [unless from dissimilated HHE-HHE]).

IE(A6v) verbal: -"¿O(-¿E), ("what is held, object(-like)"), causative; (IE in -(e)yo {**H₃ey}, causative; -n-, causative [from PL NA, "one"]); (cf. Basque -i in itzal-i, 'obscure' ('cause to be shaded'), from itzal, 'shade' (Trask 1997:212; strangely, Trask does not recognize this as a causative formant, but characterizes it as "an identical -i . . . to derive participles from nouns and adjectives"; referring, of course, to Basque -i from PL ¿A); (cf. Japanese -*y in tate: ( *tatay) = taté-ru, 'erect' ('cause to stand'), from tata, 'stand'); in language after language, the causative/factitive has been simply formed by adding a formant to the verb which originally designated an inanimate object: factitive* ('I [cause] it {NA} [to be] V... -ed'); and the causative: ('I [cause] he {him} {¿O, originally inanimate} to V... it')

IE*(A6v1) verbal: -" ¿O ("hold"); (IE *-[y]e/o-, subjunctive?); (cf. Japanese yo, emphasis for statement or command [‘must'; cf. yu-u, ‘tie, bind' = IE *2. eu- {**H₃ew-}, ‘put on, bind (cf. ou-tla: 'bandage')' [¿O-FA, "holding"])

IE(A6n) nominal: ¿O, ("what is held, object"); (IE *yo (from H₃ey from ¿O- ¿E), ‘who, which', listed incorrectly under *3. e-); (cf. Altaic -i/?, 3rd p. sing.); (cf. Beng yo, ‘another')

AA/IE(A7v) verbal: -"FA[/F[H]A], imperfective;(Egyptian -w, imperfective ‘participle'); (IE in nomina actionis in -we/o(n) and Old Indian active present participle in u for s-desideratives); (cf. Beng -w in bON, ‘black pagne leaf'); (cf. Uralic Nenets -wa (not -*ma!), imperfective infinitive); (cf. Japanese imperfect -u [imperfective]); the idea behind this formant is that a definite small number of repetitions implies activity without completion.

IE(A7n) nominal: -FA [F[H]A], definite inanimate small plural; (Egyptian in -(j)w, nominal plural; in -wj, nominal dual; -w, (Late?) 3^rd person plural suffix for nouns and verbs); (Arabic in -ûna, external masculine nominative nominal plural; in -û, 3^rd person plural verbal suffix); (IE dual in *-o(:)u); (cf. Beng -*w in gbO, ‘feces'); also nominal topic (see B4 below)

(A8/9v&n). verbal and nominal FE, ("energetic") / FO, ("ear, leaf"); not identified at present

(A10v&n) verbal and nominal -F[H]A {see FA above}

(A11/12v&n). verbal and nominal F[H]E, ("weary") / F[H]O, ("wind") ; not identified at present

(A13v&n) verbal and nominal -HA {see ?A above}

AA/IE*(A13n1) nominal: HA(-¿E); (Egyptian negative element j(j)); (IE: the negative represented by Greek and Old Indian a-, negative (considered incorrectly to be a vocalic reduction of *n-)); i.e. HA, "air" or "airy, empty"); (cf. Uralic e, ‘no, not'); (cf. Altaic negative e); (cf. Beng (Southern Mandé) é, ‘not' (though I reconstructed the PL base as ?E in the essay on Beng, it could represent an unusual response to HA-¿E [é from *E from *ay?])); (cf. Japanese hi, ‘error, fault' (‘omission[?]'); hi-, ‘non-‘).

(A14v&n) verbal and nominal -HE {see ?E above}

(A15v&n) verbal and nominal -HO {see ?O above}

(A16v&n) verbal and nominal -HHA {see ¿A above}

IE(A17v) verbal: HHE ("go"); in HHE- ¿E ("going"); (IE *-H₄[e]i, dative; *1. ei-, ‘come, go'); (cf. Basque dative -i (from *-ey) (Trask 1997:201); dative verbal marker -i- (from *-ey-) (Trask 1997:228)); (cf. Uralic Nenets -ye? [from *-ey?{?}], ‘toward'); (cf. Japanese (h)e, ‘to (of motion)' [cf. also heru, ‘decrease' {‘go away'; héru, ‘pass'}])

IE*(A17v1) verbal: HHE-HHE ("always going"), (IE -ye: {from *-e:y}, optative); (cf. Uralic Nenets -yi?, potential noun: xet-, ‘tell' xetyiq, ‘possibility to tell' {‘going to tell'}; HHE-HHE dissimilated to HHE-¿E [IE *-e:y]}; (cf. Nenets 3^rd p. optative -ya; conjunctive -yi); (not found in Japanese but probably present)

(A17n) nominal: -HHE {see ?E above}

(A18v&n) verbal and nominal -HHO {see ¿O above}

(A19/20/21v&n). verbal and nominal K[?]A, ("chew") / K[?]E, ("penis, male") / K[?]O, ("neck, twist"); not identified at present

IE(A22v) verbal: K[?]XA ("hair, hang, behind");(IE ghe in emphatic negations: Old Indian ná gha, ‘(strongly) not, **no hair, **no trace, not at all', listed under ghe-, emphatic particles)

AA(A22n) nominal: K[?]XA ("hair, hang, behind"); (Egyptian in H3 {K[?]XA-R[H]E, "hair- fall=back-of-head"}, ‘occiput, back of ear, behind')

AA/IE(A23v) verbal: K[?]XE ("face, in front of, about to . . ."); ( Egyptian in Hr {K[?]XE-RO, "front-part"}, ‘face, *front'); (IE g[^]he-, "*before", cf. Old Indian tár-hi, ‘at one time' = ‘before then', listed under ghe-; cf. also in gher-, ‘*face', in Czech zrak, ‘face', listed under g[^]her-, ‘beam, glow, shimmer'; g[^]he: in emphatic personal pronouns: Greek eme- gé, ‘me, **my face, **myself' [K[?]XE-?A, ("face-here"), ‘self'], listed under ghe-, emphatic particles); (cf. Basque -ke, potential mood suffix (Trask 1997:224))

IE(A23n) nominal: K[?]XE ("bare, scrape"); (IE *1. g[^]he:-, ‘be empty'); (cf. Basque -ge, ‘lack of . . . , missing')

IE(A24v&n) verbal and nominal: K[?]XO ("throat, hole"); not identified at present

IE(A25v&n) verbal and nominal: K[H]A; not identified at present

IE(A26v&n) verbal and nominal: K[H]E; not identified at present

IE(A27n) nominal: K[H]O; (IE *-ko, diminutive); (cf. Basque -ko, diminutive); (cf. Uralic -ka in pos-ka, ‘cheek'); (cf. Japanese ko-, ‘little, small'; ko, ‘child')

IE*(A27n1) nominal: K[H]O-F[H]A ("cover-ing"); (IE *2. (s)keu-, ‘cover, wrap up'); (cf. Basque -ko, ‘clothing')

IE(A28) nominal: KX[H]A-F[H]A ("hurting"); (IE ka:u-, ‘hew, beat'); (cf. Basque -ko (KO₂), ‘blow')

IE(A29v) verbal: KX[H]E ("fast, busy"); (IE in *4. ken-; in *-sk[^]-, former of presents, iteratives, distributive, repetitive, continuative, intensive; in Greek perfect -k); (cf. Uralic -cha, deverbative); (cf. Japanese -k-, perfect)

AA/IE(A30v) verbal: KX[H]O ("closed up = close"); (cf. Egyptian sDm.xr.f, ‘he *must hear' [cf. xr, ‘with']); (IE k[^]e / k[^]o, "future particle [Greek]"); (cf. Basque -ko, future participle (Trask 1997:103)); (cf. Uralic -ka/ä, imperative [cf. Nenets -x, hortative])

AA/IE(A30n) nominal: KX[H]O ("closed up = close"); (cf. Egyptian xntj, ‘in front'); (IE *ko(m-); *ko-, ‘this', listed under *k[^]o, which is properly K[H]E, ‘that'); (cf. Uralic -ka/ä, comitative (‘with')); (cf. Nenets locative -x-na; xi, ‘near'); (cf. Japanese ko:(re), used for third person proximate; contrasting with so:(re) [S[H]O-RE], semi-proximate; and ka(re) [K[H]E-RE], distal)

(A31n) nominal: MA (formant of nouns of place); (Egyptian m-, prefix forming nouns of place ); (Arabic ma-, prefix forming nouns of place ); (IE -mo, suffix forming nouns of place as in Greek keuthmós, ‘hiding place'; (cf. Sumerian ma, 'land', from which the verbal infix -m(a)-, 'there', is derived)

IE(A31n1) nominal: MA-?A ("full"); (IE *2. ma:-); (cf. Japanese ma-, intensive prefix)

*(A31n2) nominal: MA-¿E ("full-like"); (cf. Japanese mai-, prefix meaning ‘each, every')

AA/IE(A32n) nominal: ME ("tongue = "converser"); (Egyptian in -w(jj)n (irregularly for **-m(jj)n), 1^st p. pl. of the Old Perfective); (IE *1. me-, 1^st p. sing. oblique pronoun ; *-me, 1^st person plural verbal inflection); (cf. Altaic in men, ‘I'); (cf. Beng (Southern Mandé) in mí, ‘you [sg. familiar]'); (cf. in Late Middle Japanese mi, ‘I'; corresponding to this, we also have kimi, ‘you, other converser' (K[H]E-¿E-"ME-¿E); K[H]E, 'other' is a common formant for the 2^nd person)

AA/IE(A32v) verbal: ME(-HE) ("push away+move-across- from=reject"); (Egyptian m(j), negative imperative); (in Arabic tamahmaha {m-h}, 'to abstain from'; in mahmaha, 'to prevent from'); (IE *1. me:- (**meH₄), ‘(that) not', prohibitive); (cf. Japanese -m-, negative irrealis)

IE*(A33n) nominal: MO ("overall"); (IE *-mo, superlative); (cf. Altaic - ma/e, augmentative in kap-kara, ‘entirely black' (from *kam-kara); (cf. Uralic -ma, superlative [cf. also Nenets ngar, ‘largeness' ngarm-, ‘become larger']); (cf. Japanese mo, ‘also, even')

AA/IE(A34n) nominal: M[H]A(-¿E); (Arabic mi-, prefix indicating nouns of instrument (miqbar)); (IE -m, accusative); PL M[H]A is "activity at"; it was originally used primarily with animate nouns to indicate — in the absence of an expressed animate subject — that they were targets of the action; obviously, it could also be used as a locative; neuters acquired -m secondarily, originally only as locatives; (cf. Uralic -ma/ä, accusative)

AA/IE*(A34n1)nominal: M[H]A (activity); (Arabic ma-, prefix forming nouns of location); (IE -mo, formant of locations); (cf. Uralic -ma/ä, deverbal noun [Finnish kuolla, ‘die' kuolema, ‘death'); (cf. Japanese -ma(:), in MJ jama, ‘obstruction, restriction' [PL T[?]SO-¿A-M[H]A {"held-activity"} = OJ *dyama:])

(A35v&n) verbal and nominal: M[H]E ("thin, soft, smooth"); not identified at present

AA/IE(A36n) nominal: M[H]O ("human"); (AA *man, ‘someone');(IE does not have this use presumably except as a constituent of *men, ‘someone'); (cf. Beng mo, ‘my, mine'; this word was used for "pronouns" in Amerindian languages.

AA/IE(A37v) verbal: NA; (Egyptian sDm.n.f; ‘he heard', really a nominalization: ‘what he spoke was . . .'); (IE -no, perfect participle); (cf. Basque -(e)n, past tense (Trask 1997:224) {really a nominalization}); Basque -n, nominalizer (Trask, "complementizer"; Trask 1997:240))

AA/(IE)(A37n) nominal: -NA (/N[H]A) (definite singular); (Egyptian n, "genitival particle[?]", shown to be an inflected article by its agreement with the foregoing noun, varying for feminine [n.t] and plural [{i}nw]); (Arabic -l [from animate N[H]A]); (not found in IE as a genitive per se, which has inherited *-y [from -¿E, "-like", an adjectivizer] but -n, nominal suffix; -l, Romance definite article base: -lo, agent; cf. also -ino, secondary adjectives; -ino, pronominal possessive); cf. Basque -n(a), refers to the absolutive subject of a subordinate clause / -la, refers to the ergative agent of the subordinate clause (see Trask 1997: 240-241); -ne, female first name (NA-¿E, a femininization of "the"); -le, agent, actor (N[H]A-¿E, "the [animate]"); (cf. also Uralic -n, genitive); -na/nä, de-nominal/verbal noun [Hungarian vad, ‘wild' vadon, ‘wilderness']); (cf. Beng in sON\, ‘person'); (cf. Japanese na in kana, ‘this (one)'; na, "copular connective(?)" in shizuka na hito, ‘a quiet man' (but perhaps simply the singular definite article [‘the man of quiet'], corresponding to genitive particle no [really the plural (article){NO}]).

(IE)*(A37n1) nominal: NA ("one" = "I / you"); (IE: not found as a 1^st or 2^nd p. pronoun unless in *3. ne- {*no:i [**neH₃ey-{?}]; could this form be related to Arabic naHnu, 'we', **from NO-HHO(-F[H]A, 'be inclined to'["feel(ings)-resting = agreeing[?]"]; IE *2. neu-, 'nod'; Arabic naHâ [n-H-w], 'incline towards', as 'those who agree = we'?}, ‘we {oblique}'); (cf. Basque in ni (from na-"yV PL NA-"¿E), "I" (Trask 1997:196)); (cf. Beng n, ‘I'); a frequent set of pronouns around the world for the first and second person are NA, "the one", and K[H]E, "the other"; Beng ka, 2^nd p. plural and polite); the a of ka (for *ke) and the syllabic n of *na show that these "pronouns" are stress-unaccented.

IE**(A37n2) nominal: "NA(-¿E) ("inside-like"); (IE nei- {Slavic *on[?]}, listed under *1. en, ‘in'); (cf. Basque -n, locative, ‘in' (Trask 1997:202)); (cf. Uralic -na/ä, illative [‘into']); (cf. Japanese ni, ‘in, into'

IE***(A37n3) nominal: NA/N[H]A in ?A+N[H]A(-FE) ("this-animate[-male]"'); (IE in *all- for **alw-, listed under *1. al-; 2. an-); (cf. Altaic ol, 3rd p. demonstrative nominative and ?E-NA("that", inanimate), -a/en, 3rd p. demonstrative oblique); Altaic is attempted to preserve the animate-inanimate distinction of N[H]A/NA, the nominative preferring the animate form); (cf. Beng aN, ‘we [past, imperative], us, our')

IE****(A37n4) nominal: NA-?A ("being inside, absent"), (IE 1. ne/e:, sentence negation); (cf. Japanese *na:-, ná-i, ‘there is not')

AA/IE*****(A37n5) nominal: NA-"?A-¿E ("inside-like=not here=absent"); (Egyptian (j)n(n), negative); (IE *ne:i-, listed under *1. ne/ne:-, negative); (cf. Beng ní, ‘not'); (cf. Japanese -*na:i -nai, ‘not' — for this interpretation of the Japanese negative, cf. náibu, ‘inside, interior' [NA-?A-¿E-P[?]FO-FA])

IE******(A37n6) nominal: NA-¿E ("not-say"); (IE *nei, sentence negative, listed under *1. ne/e:); (cf. Japanese nee, particle asking for agreement)

(A38v&n) verbal and nominal: NE ("mucus, sticky"); not identified at present

AA/IE(A39n) nominal: -NO ("basket"); (Egyptian -n, pronominal plural); (IE n in -nt, 3^rd p. pl.; in -men, 1^st p. pl.); (cf. Uralic -n, plural [originally inanimate]); (cf. Japanese plural -no in ono (see #6), and so(-)no, ‘that, those'; properly a marker of the definite plural)

(A40v)verbal: -N[H]A ("start to . . ."); (IE: not formally recognized but *-l, inchoative [cf. Armenian infinitive in -l{but possibly from R[H]O, "rise to . . ."}]); (cf. Basque l-, 3^rd person prefix for the irrealis (see Trask 1997:212-3); (cf. Uralic -l, inchoative (perhaps this has been weakened to mean only ‘move'); (cf. Beng -N, inchoative); (cf. Japanese: Miller 1967 -n- "perfect" but see p. 326, where it is clearly an inchoative)

AA(A40n) nominal: -N[H]A-¿E ("moving inside"), (cf. Afrasian *li, ‘[in]to'); (cf. Japanese ni, locative, [‘into'])

*(A40n1) nominal: -N[H]A ("move inside"); (Basque -la, forms adverbs of manner (‘moving like . . .'); {see also NA above}

IE**(A40n2) nominal: -"N[H]A-(¿E); (IE *-lo (*-li), nouns of the agent); (cf. Basque -le, agent)

(A41v&n) verbal and nominal: N[H]E ("slippery, slide "); not identified at present

IE(A42n) nominal: -N[H]O; (IE *-lo, diminutive)

(A43/44/45v&n). verbal and nominal P[?]A, ("partitive/diminutive") / P[?]E, ("pour out") / P[?]O, ("swell"); not identified at present

(A46v&n) verbal and nominal: P[?]FA ("protrude"); not identified at present

IE(A47n) nominal: P[?]FE-(¿E) ("foot-like = at the feet of, by, under"); (IE *bhi-, "by", listed under *ambhi-, ‘around'); (cf. Basque -b/pe, ‘under')

IE(A48n) nominal: P[?]FO-¿E, ("leg-like, on top of"); (IE (*ebhi[?]), ‘upon something, thereupon and overpowering it' [?E-, "there"+])

AA/IE(A49n) nominal: P[H]A ("over"); (Egyptian p3, former of past perfects); (IE in *pero-s, ‘earlier'; *peri-, ‘before', listed under *2. per-, ‘lead out over'); (cf. Basque b-, prefix of 3^rd person jussive verbs; cf. ba, ‘already'; (cf. cf. Sumerian ba-, verbal prefix, glossed by Akkadian perfect in -t)

(A50/51v&n) verbal and nominal P[H]E, ("small") / P[H]O, ("sniff"); not identified at present

(A52/53/54v&n) verbal and nominal P[H]FA, ("fat") / P[H]FE, ("sting") / P[H]FO, ("puff"); not identified at present

(A55/56v&n) verbal and nominal QA, ("tubular") / QE, ("congeal"); not identified at present

(A57v) verbal: QO ("attached"); (cf. Uralic Nenets -ng?, essive); cf. Altaic -q in genitives [-i/?q = ¿E-QO or ¿E-QA; -ni/?q = NA-¿E-QO or NA-¿E-QA]); (cf. Japanese ga, emphatic subject [but Japanese a for o is unexplained])

IE(A57n) nominal: -QO ("skull, pot"); (IE *-ng collectives); (cf. Uralic -ka/ä, non-singular)

*(A57n1) nominal: QO ("skull = animate entity"); (cf. Sumerian ga-10, ‘I'); (cf. Beng qa, ‘they [with negatives]'; qO [*qo + va, imperfective], ‘they [with present/future]'); this use of QO is particularly frequent in Australian languages

AA/IE**(A57n2) nominal: QO(-?A) ("be attached"); (Egyptian in [j]gr, ‘also'); (IE *(n)go:, 'behind, after, on account of', listed under *g[^]ho:; *eng- in *en-dh-, ‘and', listed incorrectly under *en-); (cf. Sumerian -(n)ga- [a better reading for J. #594 in my opinion is the attested Akkadian -(n)gu(-u), which I would indicate as -(n)gu/û_x], modal prefix, ‘also' [in texts older than Old Babylonian, the prefix is always written -ga- but in Old Babylonian and later, it is normally written in-ga. Thomsen 1984 says on page 170: "The form of this prefix is normally considered to be /inga/ or /nga/." If the initial i- is not derived from i₃, the normal sign of non-concomitant time (PL ?E), then it may represent the first element of IE *eng or Egyptian [j]gr.]); (cf. Uralic Nenets ngo?, ‘also'); (cf. [Sino-]Tibetan -ang in ky+ang, ‘also'); (cf. Japanese -go:, ‘after' [ MJ go])

(A58/59v&n). verbal and nominal Q[H]A, ("hard, humped, elevated") / Q[H]E, ("bustle"); not identified at present

(A60n) nominal: Q[H]O ("hooked"), (cf. Beng possibly in ?aaN, ‘hear now, well'; perhaps doubtful)

(A61v&n). verbal and nominal RA, ("tree"); not identified at present

IE(A62v) verbal: RE ("scratch, (any) one"); (IE in Latin -r, passive ending); (cf. Basque in ra-, causative prefix; -erazi, causative suffix (Trask 1997:231);(Japanese -r- , passive)

AA(A62n) nominal: -RE ("scratch" = indefinite number); (Egyptian in p-3, ‘**any one', as against p-n, ‘the' (P[?]A-N/N[H]A); *jp-, ‘ones' (¿A-P[?]A)); (cf. Japanese in so(-)re, ‘it, that'); (cf. [Sino-]Tibetan -re, ‘each', distributive); (cf. Altaic -a/er, distributive); properly, -RE is a marker of the indefinite singular

IE*(A62n1) nominal: "RE-¿E; (IE *re:i-, ‘number', listed incorrectly under *1. ar-); (cf. Japanese -ri, single (any one), in hito-ri, ‘single man')

(A63v) verbal: RO (augmentative); not identified at present.

IE(A63n) nominal: -RO (elative); (IE *-ro, comparative); (cf. Beng -l/r, augmentative); (cf. Japanese *-ro but not recognized as a suffix)

IE(A64n) nominal: R[H]A (color formant); (IE *-r, terminating color words); (cf. Beng -l in kala, ‘elderly person')

(A65v&n) verbal and nominal: R[H]E ("rain, fall"); not identified at present

IE(A66v) verbal: R[H]O ("rise"), (IE for *lo = ‘rise', cf. OHG ti-la, ‘women's breast', and Greek tú-lo-s, ‘swelling'; cf. *-lo, nouns of agent and instrument [this is from "give rise to"]); (cf. the Japanese imperfect ending -ru = either PL RE ("apply") + FA (imperfective) [cf. Egyptian -3] or R[H]O-F[H]A [Armenian infinitive in -l]; (cf. Japanese *-ro: ( MJ -roo), presumptive, ‘rise to . . . , intend to')

IE(A66n) nominal: -R[H]O; (IE -lo, augmentative)

IE(A67n) nominal: -SA(-¿E) or SA-FE ("strong[-like] {unbreakable}" or "strong-powerful"); (IE *-s, aorist; *s-mobile; or *su-, ‘well'); (cf. Old Basque *Z-, which has the effect of de-leniting initial consonants in a word; -tza, ‘abundance, large amount of, collectivity'; or -zu / *-tzu (-tsu [SA-¿E-FE [?]]), "full of"; Biscaian ze-, past tense prefix when no other agreement prefix present {see (A2) above}); (cf. Uralic Nenets -sy, "past tense" or so/wa, ‘good'); (cf. Japanese súu-, ‘several').

(A68n) nominal: SE ("individual", inanimate); see S[H]E below.

(A69v&n) verbal and nominal: NO ("skin, pull "); not identified at present

IE(A70n) nominal: S[H]A ("content = serene"); (IE desiderative / future in -*s); (cf. Japanese -*s(a:)-, marker of respect ( MJ -mas-u (MA-S[H]A, "fully happy"; cf. masáru, ‘surpass, excel'; Miller 1967:326)

IE*(A70n1) nominal: S[H]A ("rest, place"); (IE *-s, nouns of quality [cf. Old Indian tápa-s, ‘warmth']; Mediterranean place names in -isso); (cf. Basque -z, instrumental; in -zko, ‘made of . . .' (+ KX[H]O-F[H]A, "cutting"; IE *1. (s)keu-, ‘get ready, carry out'; *6. ske:u-(t-), ‘cut, separate, scratch, score, puncture, poke through'); -tz, *stative, in gaitz, ‘bad'; putz / futz, ‘puff of air'; -tza, stative, in bizitza, ‘life'); (cf. [Sino-]Tibetan -sa, ‘place of . . . ‘); (cf. Uralic -s(s)a, inessive); (cf. Japanese *-sa:, noun of quality or place)

IE**(A70n2) nominal: S[H]A ("rest, place"); (IE possibly *-s- in *-sk[^]o); (cf. Basque -tza, job or profession); (cf. Japanese -s-, adjectivizer, in aka-s-i, ‘be red')

IE***(A70n3) nominal: S[H]A ("female"); (IE *-sa in *-i-sa, feminine [cf. Latin -issa]); (cf. Basque -sa, female); (cf. Nama -s, female)

(A71v) verbal: S[H]E ("individual"); (cf. Japanese -se, causative); see (A6) verbal: ¿O above.

IE(A71n) nominal: S[H]E ("individual"); (IE singular in *-s); (cf. Altaic as -z, Turkish suffix of one of objects occurring in pairs); (cf. Beng in sia, ‘male')

IE(A72v) verbal: S[H]O ("clan-member=same=so"); (IE *swe-, ‘*same', listed incorrectly under *se-; *mes-, listed under *1. e:-); (cf. Japanese *-s in negative irrealis -z- (from *-n-i-s- [NA-?A-¿E-S[H]O = "not so"]; Miller 1967:327); and -mas [M[H]A-S[H]O = "hold so"]; Miller 1967:327)

AA/IE*(A72v1) verbal: S[H]O ("clan-member=person"); (Egyptian s-, causative); (IE some *s-mobile may be causative rather than intensive); (cf. Basque z-, prefix of the third person past (really properly an intensive) {see also (A2) above})

IE**(A72v2) verbal: S[H]O-¿E ("follow-like"); (IE *se:i-, ‘so', listed under se-); (cf. Japanese shi, ‘and')

IE(A72n) nominal: S[H]O ("clan=good"); (IE in *su-, ‘good'); (cf. Basque -so, family relationship); (cf. Japanese OJ so:-, intensive prefix)

IE*(A72n1) nominal: S[H]O-¿E ("clan-member-like"); (Egyptian -s(j), ‘she'); (IE secondary *-s, 2nd p. sing. of active; *syo-, ‘this', listed under *so[s]); (cf. Altaic -si/?, 3rd p. sing.; in sen, ‘you [sing.]'); (cf. Uralic sä, ‘he/she/it'); (Beng in sO\N, ‘person, someone, somebody, body'); (cf. Japanese in so(-)re, ‘it, that'; so-no, ‘that, those')

IE**(A72n2) nominal: S[H]O ("clan[-member]"); (IE in *-es, nominative plural); (cf. Basque -z, plural absolutive verbal suffix (see Trask 1997: 221-2))

IE(A73n) nominal: T[?]A ("hand"); (. IE *de-, demonstrative stem, ‘I'-deictic in part; cf. Greek dé:, ‘even, now, just, certainly'); (cf. Basque d-- as a third person prefix for present tense verbs); (cf. Beng díN, ‘next to'); (cf. Altaic -de/a, locative; (a lative [‘at the side of, with'] in languages all over the world; seen dimly in IE ablative -e:/o:d, possibly a metathesis of *-d+e: (T?A+HHE, "go away from the hand") to facilitate pronunciation of vowelless stems); (cf. Uralic -t(Vogul), locative); (cf. Sumerian -da, locative); (cf. Japanese de (from "T[?]A-¿E), ‘at/in/on (the hand of); by means of (through the hand of)')

(A74/75v&n). verbal and nominal T[?]E, ("heel, spin around") / T[?]O, ("torso, put together"); not identified at present

(A76/77v&n). verbal and nominal T[H]A, ("dew, steal, damp") / T[H]E, ("star, shine, contract"); not identified at present

IE(A78v) verbal: -T[H]O, ("approach, gather"); (IE *2. to-); (cf. Uralic *-ta/ä, allative (‘toward') [cf. Nenets dative -n~to/-h]); (cf. Japanese to, ‘and, as soon as')

IE*(A78v1) verbal: -T[H]O (iterative); (IE *-to, perfective passive participle); (cf. Altaic -d/t, perfective); (cf. Japanese -ta, perfect [the a for expected o is unexplained]); also -t-, perfect (Miller 1967:326))

(A78n) nominal: T[H]O (definite animate plural); (IE *1. to-, ‘this'); (cf. Basque -to, augmentative)

IE*(A78n1) nominal: -"T[H]O-¿E ("tribesman-like"); (IE *-ti, nomina agentis and nomina actionis; [cf. IE *sru-ti-s, 'a flowing, streaming', from *sreu-); (cf. Basque -te, gerund); (cf. Uralic -tya in kun-tya, ‘urine'); (cf. Japanese -te, ‘one who performs . . .', gerund)

IE**(A78n2) nominal: -"T[H]O-¿E ("tribesman-like"); (IE *-ti, collective); (cf. Basque -te, ergative NP plural verbal suffix (see Trask 1997:221-2); -te, ‘abundance'; -ti, ‘group of men' (T[H]O-"¿E)

(A79v&n) verbal and nominal: T[?]SA ("long, body"); not identified at present

IE(A80v) verbal: T[?]SE-FA ("releasing=going away"); (IE *dheu-, listed under *3. dhe:-, ‘disappear'); (cf. Japanese -zu, negative)

(A81v&n). verbal and nominal T[?]SO, ("circling"); not identified at present

(A82/83v&n). verbal and nominal TS[H]A, ("rear up, excessive") / TS[H]E ("bristle up, frightened"); not identified at present

IE(A84n) nominal: TS[H]O (circle of animates); (IE in -*tu, forms abstract substantives (TS[H]O-F[H]A)); (cf. [Sino-]Tibetan -tsho, plural)

AA/IE*(A84n1) nominal: TS[H]O ("circling"); (IE in *ter-, ‘there' [Egyptian '3], listed incorrectly under *1. to-); (cf. Uralic "essive" -ta); (cf. Sumerian -ta, instrumental); (cf. Japanese to, ‘[along] with')

IE**(A84n2) nominal: TS[H]O; (IE *to, ‘then', under *1. to-); (cf. Japanese to, ‘when')

(A85/86v&n). verbal and nominal XA, ("swallow, slit") / XE, ("fur, feather, prick"); not identified at present

AA(A87v)verbal: XO, ("squirt, below"); (Egyptian in *Xr {XO-RO, "below-part"}, ‘under')

IE(A88v)verbal: X[H]A-F[H]A ("resting=(be)come"); (IE *kwe- in kwey6-); (cf. Japanese -k[w] in forms of adjectives except non-past indicative, from kú-ru, 'come')

(A89v&n). verbal and nominal X[H]E, ("curl around, encircle"); not identified at present

AA/IE(A90n) nominal: X[H]O (large indefinite animate plural); (cf. Egyptian S in jSzt, ‘what?' [S X]); (IE *kwo-, indefinite); (cf. Japanese ka, interrogative particle ('what?'); indefinite [the Japanese a for expected o is unexplained])

IE*(A90n1) nominal: X[H]O-HA ("at the quanity"); (cf. IE *kwei-, ‘as', listed under *kwo- [‘of the quantity of']); (cf. Uralic Nenets simulatives in -r-xa); (cf. Altaic -ca, aequativus) [‘at the quantity of']); (cf. Japanese koo, ‘this way')

IE(B1) nominal: HHA-¿E-KX[H]O ("water-like=sea+shell=property"); (IE *e:ik-, ‘have as one's own; be able to'); (cf. Basque ergative *-ek); (cf. Sumerian genitive -ak)

*(B2) (S)OV is the earliest Basque word-order, corresponding to OV established by Lehmann for earliest IE; S-OV (and possibly OV-S, which may have distinguished between imperfective and perfective aspects before singular and plural elements were applied to convey the same aspects) word-order stems from the language of the active-type phase, where the transitive subject is only loosely linked to the object-"verb", which is primary, and need not be expressed overtly, a characteristic which many active/ergative-type languages amply illustrate; Basque, Beng (Southern Mandé), Japanese and Sumerian also have SOV,which should also be assumed for Altaic and Uralic (proved by the invariable rectum-regensword order of Uralic and Altaic [except Northern Tungus]).

*(B3) verbal: REDUPLICATION indicates habituality; however, when the iterative -*to (-ta) began to be used for the perfective, reduplication was re-defined as iterative: e.g. in Japanese, when *ker-, ‘*run', is reduplicated, the vowel -a- represents a stress un-accented root -e-: *ke"ker- kakér-u, ‘run'; kák-u, ‘write'; stem: ka(i)-; (Egyptian reduplication, habitual: e.g. Ddd.t, ‘what has always been said').

*(B4) cf. Basque -u, circumlocative, in gu, "we, (to and for) us"; and zu, "(to and for) you (singular but formerly plural); (Japanese conservatively preserves archaic features of the Proto-Language (active-type) period, during which the transitive subject formed a separate sub-phrase of the sentence, and was frequently deleted. When the context required it to be included, the early ergative-type sub-phrases were formed: S + FA, literally, 'around' the S, which is actually a topicalizer rather than a formative of the ergative subject; this element is very old; we can see it in *-su, the IE locative plural (*-s + *-u); and possibly the Latin nominative in -u; and in IE pronominal forms with *-w, e.g. *tewe; in -w, the Egyptian independent pronoun ending (zw, he [topic {subject} of stative]; him [topic {notobject} of transitive verb]); cf. Afrasian nominative in *-u; cf. Hurrian dative (of interest) -wa.

**(B5) (cf. Japanese: the direct object marker (*w)o is a relatively late innovation; according to Shibatani (1996:340), "it was more common not to mark the direct object at all" in the earliest records; this is the most archaic pattern; in spite of the Japanese orthographical details, this particle seems to mean "toward", which would suggest a derivation from PL HHO, "come down on" (cf. IE 1. o, to, with; [cf. Egyptian h3]); this correlates better with the Japanese vocative and hortative use of o (cf. IE 2. o:, vocative).

Combinatory Modifications

for modifications of the vowels and consonants in combination, see the

Table of Modifications